Moon

Both the Moon's natural prominence in the earthly sky and its regular cycle of phases (Abre numa nova janela) as seen from Earth have provided cultural references and influences for human societies and cultures throughout history. Such cultural influences can be found in language, calendar systems, art, and mythology.

Name and etymology

The Moon, tinted reddish, during a lunar eclipse (Abre numa nova janela)

During the lunar phases (Abre numa nova janela), only portions of the Moon can be observed from Earth (Abre numa nova janela).

The usual English (Abre numa nova janela) proper name for Earth's natural satellite is simply the Moon, with a capital M.[16] (Abre numa nova janela)[17] (Abre numa nova janela) The noun moon is derived from Old English (Abre numa nova janela)mōna, which (like all its Germanic (Abre numa nova janela) cognates) stems from Proto-Germanic (Abre numa nova janela) *mēnōn,[18] (Abre numa nova janela) which in turn comes from Proto-Indo-European (Abre numa nova janela) *mēnsis"month"[19] (Abre numa nova janela) (from earlier *mēnōt, genitive *mēneses) which may be related to the verb "measure" (of time).[20] (Abre numa nova janela)

Occasionally, the name Luna /ˈluːnə/ (Abre numa nova janela) is used in scientific writing[21] (Abre numa nova janela) and especially in science fiction to distinguish the Earth's moon from others, while in poetry "Luna" has been used to denote personification of Earth's moon.[22] (Abre numa nova janela) Cynthia /ˈsɪnθiə/ (Abre numa nova janela) is another poetic name, though rare, for the Moon personified as a goddess,[23] (Abre numa nova janela) while Selene (Abre numa nova janela) /səˈliːniː/ (Abre numa nova janela) (literally "Moon") is the Greek goddess of the Moon.

The usual English adjective pertaining to the Moon is "lunar", derived from the Latin word for the Moon, lūna. The adjective selenian /səliːniən/ (Abre numa nova janela),[24] (Abre numa nova janela) derived from the Greek word for the Moon, σελήνη selēnē, and used to describe the Moon as a world rather than as an object in the sky, is rare,[25] (Abre numa nova janela) while its cognate selenic was originally a rare synonym[26] (Abre numa nova janela) but now nearly always refers to the chemical element selenium (Abre numa nova janela).[27] (Abre numa nova janela) The Greek word for the Moon does however provide us with the prefix seleno-, as in selenography (Abre numa nova janela), the study of the physical features of the Moon, as well as the element name selenium.[28] (Abre numa nova janela)[29] (Abre numa nova janela)

The Greek goddess of the wilderness and the hunt, Artemis (Abre numa nova janela), equated with the Roman Diana (Abre numa nova janela), one of whose symbols was the Moon and who was often regarded as the goddess of the Moon, was also called Cynthia (Abre numa nova janela), from her legendary birthplace on Mount Cynthus (Abre numa nova janela).[30] (Abre numa nova janela) These names – Luna, Cynthia and Selene – are reflected in technical terms for lunar orbits (Abre numa nova janela) such as apolune, pericynthion and selenocentric.

The Moon

Near side of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela)

Far side of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela)

Lunar north pole (Abre numa nova janela)

Lunar south pole (Abre numa nova janela)

Formation

Main articles: Origin of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela), Giant-impact hypothesis (Abre numa nova janela), and Circumplanetary disk (Abre numa nova janela)

The Moon formed 4.51 billion years ago,[f] (Abre numa nova janela) or even 100 million years earlier, some 50 million years after the origin of the Solar System, as research published in 2019 suggests.[31] (Abre numa nova janela) Several forming mechanisms have been proposed,[32] (Abre numa nova janela) including the fission of the Moon from Earth's crust through centrifugal force (Abre numa nova janela)[33] (Abre numa nova janela) (which would require too great an initial rotation rate of Earth),[34] (Abre numa nova janela) the gravitational capture of a pre-formed Moon[35] (Abre numa nova janela) (which would require an unfeasibly extended atmosphere of Earth (Abre numa nova janela) to dissipate (Abre numa nova janela) the energy of the passing Moon),[34] (Abre numa nova janela) and the co-formation of Earth and the Moon together in the primordial (Abre numa nova janela) accretion disk (Abre numa nova janela) (which does not explain the depletion of metals in the Moon).[34] (Abre numa nova janela) These hypotheses also cannot account for the high angular momentum (Abre numa nova janela) of the Earth–Moon system.[36] (Abre numa nova janela)

The evolution of the Moon and a tour of the Moon

The prevailing theory is that the Earth–Moon system formed after a giant impact (Abre numa nova janela) of a Mars (Abre numa nova janela)-sized body (named Theia (Abre numa nova janela)) with the proto-Earth (Abre numa nova janela). The impact blasted material into Earth's orbit and then the material accreted and formed the Moon.[37] (Abre numa nova janela)[38] (Abre numa nova janela)

This theory best explains the evidence. Eighteen months prior to an October 1984 conference on lunar origins, Bill Hartmann, Roger Phillips, and Jeff Taylor challenged fellow lunar scientists: "You have eighteen months. Go back to your Apollo data, go back to your computer, do whatever you have to, but make up your mind. Don't come to our conference unless you have something to say about the Moon's birth." At the 1984 conference at Kona, Hawaii, the giant-impact hypothesis emerged as the most consensual.

Before the conference, there were partisans of the three "traditional" theories, plus a few people who were starting to take the giant impact seriously, and there was a huge apathetic middle who didn't think the debate would ever be resolved. Afterward, there were essentially only two groups: the giant impact camp and the agnostics.[39] (Abre numa nova janela)

Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System. Computer simulations of giant impacts have produced results that are consistent with the mass of the lunar core and the angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system. These simulations also show that most of the Moon derived from the impactor, rather than the proto-Earth.[40] (Abre numa nova janela) However, more recent simulations suggest a larger fraction of the Moon derived from the proto-Earth.[41] (Abre numa nova janela)[42] (Abre numa nova janela)[43] (Abre numa nova janela)[44] (Abre numa nova janela) Other bodies of the inner Solar System such as Mars and Vesta (Abre numa nova janela) have, according to meteorites from them, very different oxygen and tungsten isotopic (Abre numa nova janela) compositions compared to Earth. However, Earth and the Moon have nearly identical isotopic compositions. The isotopic equalization of the Earth-Moon system might be explained by the post-impact mixing of the vaporized material that formed the two,[45] (Abre numa nova janela) although this is debated.[46] (Abre numa nova janela)

The impact released a lot of energy and then the released material re-accreted into the Earth–Moon system. This would have melted the outer shell of Earth, and thus formed a magma ocean.[47] (Abre numa nova janela)[48] (Abre numa nova janela) Similarly, the newly formed Moon would also have been affected and had its own lunar magma ocean (Abre numa nova janela); its depth is estimated from about 500 km (300 miles) to 1,737 km (1,079 miles).[47] (Abre numa nova janela)

While the giant-impact theory explains many lines of evidence, some questions are still unresolved, most of which involve the Moon's composition.[49] (Abre numa nova janela)

Oceanus Procellarum (Abre numa nova janela) ("Ocean of Storms")

Ancient rift valleys (Abre numa nova janela) – rectangular structure (visible – topography – GRAIL gravity gradients (Abre numa nova janela))

Ancient rift valleys (Abre numa nova janela)– context

Ancient rift valleys (Abre numa nova janela) – closeup (artist's concept)

In 2001, a team at the Carnegie Institute of Washington reported the most precise measurement of the isotopic signatures (Abre numa nova janela) of lunar rocks.[50] (Abre numa nova janela) The rocks from the Apollo program had the same isotopic signature as rocks from Earth, differing from almost all other bodies in the Solar System. This observation was unexpected, because most of the material that formed the Moon was thought to come from Theia (Abre numa nova janela) and it was announced in 2007 that there was less than a 1% chance that Theia and Earth had identical isotopic signatures.[51] (Abre numa nova janela) Other Apollo lunar samples had in 2012 the same titanium isotopes composition as Earth,[52] (Abre numa nova janela) which conflicts (Abre numa nova janela) with what is expected if the Moon formed far from Earth or is derived from Theia. These discrepancies may be explained by variations of the giant-impact theory.

Physical characteristics

The Moon is a very slightly scalene ellipsoid (Abre numa nova janela) due to tidal stretching, with its long axis displaced 30° from facing the Earth (due to gravitational anomalies from impact basins). Its shape is more elongated than current tidal forces can account for. This 'fossil bulge' indicates that the Moon solidified when it orbited at half its current distance to the Earth, and that it is now too cold for its shape to adjust to its orbit.[53] (Abre numa nova janela)

Internal structure

Main article: Internal structure of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela)

Lunar surface chemical composition[54] (Abre numa nova janela)CompoundFormulaCompositionMariaHighlandssilica (Abre numa nova janela)SiO245.4%45.5%alumina (Abre numa nova janela)Al2O314.9%24.0%lime (Abre numa nova janela)CaO11.8%15.9%iron(II) oxide (Abre numa nova janela)FeO14.1%5.9%magnesia (Abre numa nova janela)MgO9.2%7.5%titanium dioxide (Abre numa nova janela)TiO23.9%0.6%sodium oxide (Abre numa nova janela)Na2O0.6%0.6% 99.9%100.0%

The Moon is a differentiated (Abre numa nova janela) body. It has a geochemically (Abre numa nova janela) distinct crust (Abre numa nova janela), mantle (Abre numa nova janela), and core (Abre numa nova janela). The Moon has a solid iron-rich inner core with a radius possibly as small as 240 kilometres (150 mi) and a fluid outer core primarily made of liquid iron with a radius of roughly 300 kilometres (190 mi). Around the core is a partially molten boundary layer with a radius of about 500 kilometres (310 mi).[55] (Abre numa nova janela)[56] (Abre numa nova janela) This structure is thought to have developed through the fractional crystallization (Abre numa nova janela) of a global magma ocean shortly after the Moon's formation 4.5 billion years ago.[57] (Abre numa nova janela)

Crystallization of this magma ocean would have created a mafic (Abre numa nova janela) mantle from the precipitation (Abre numa nova janela) and sinking of the minerals olivine (Abre numa nova janela), clinopyroxene (Abre numa nova janela), and orthopyroxene (Abre numa nova janela); after about three-quarters of the magma ocean had crystallised, lower-density plagioclase (Abre numa nova janela) minerals could form and float into a crust atop.[58] (Abre numa nova janela) The final liquids to crystallise would have been initially sandwiched between the crust and mantle, with a high abundance of incompatible (Abre numa nova janela) and heat-producing elements.[1] (Abre numa nova janela)

Consistent with this perspective, geochemical mapping made from orbit suggests the crust of mostly anorthosite (Abre numa nova janela).[12] (Abre numa nova janela) The Moon rock (Abre numa nova janela) samples of the flood lavas that erupted onto the surface from partial melting in the mantle confirm the mafic mantle composition, which is more iron-rich than that of Earth.[1] (Abre numa nova janela) The crust is on average about 50 kilometres (31 mi) thick.[1] (Abre numa nova janela)

The Moon is the second-densest satellite in the Solar System, after Io (Abre numa nova janela).[59] (Abre numa nova janela) However, the inner core of the Moon is small, with a radius of about 350 kilometres (220 mi) or less,[1] (Abre numa nova janela) around 20% of the radius of the Moon. Its composition is not well understood, but is probably metallic iron alloyed with a small amount of sulfur and nickel; analyses of the Moon's time-variable rotation suggest that it is at least partly molten.[60] (Abre numa nova janela)

Surface geology

Main articles: Topography of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela), Geology of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela), Moon rock (Abre numa nova janela), and List of lunar features (Abre numa nova janela)

The Topographic Globe of the Moon

Geological features of the Moon (near side / north pole at left, far side / south pole at right)

Topography of the Moon

STL 3D model (Abre numa nova janela) of the Moon with 10× elevation exaggeration rendered with data from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter of the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (Abre numa nova janela)

The topography of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela) has been measured with laser altimetry (Abre numa nova janela) and stereo image analysis (Abre numa nova janela).[61] (Abre numa nova janela) Its most visible topographic feature (Abre numa nova janela) is the giant far-side South Pole–Aitken basin (Abre numa nova janela), some 2,240 km (1,390 mi) in diameter, the largest crater on the Moon and the second-largest confirmed impact crater in the Solar System (Abre numa nova janela).[62] (Abre numa nova janela)[63] (Abre numa nova janela) At 13 km (8.1 mi) deep, its floor is the lowest point on the surface of the Moon.[62] (Abre numa nova janela)[64] (Abre numa nova janela) The highest elevations of the surface are located directly to the northeast, and it has been suggested might have been thickened by the oblique formation impact of the South Pole–Aitken basin.[65] (Abre numa nova janela) Other large impact basins such as Imbrium (Abre numa nova janela), Serenitatis (Abre numa nova janela), Crisium (Abre numa nova janela), Smythii (Abre numa nova janela), and Orientale (Abre numa nova janela) also possess regionally low elevations and elevated rims.[62] (Abre numa nova janela) The far side of the lunar surface is on average about 1.9 km (1.2 mi) higher than that of the near side.[1] (Abre numa nova janela)

The discovery of fault scarp (Abre numa nova janela) cliffs by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (Abre numa nova janela) suggest that the Moon has shrunk within the past billion years, by about 90 metres (300 ft).[66] (Abre numa nova janela) Similar shrinkage features exist on Mercury (Abre numa nova janela). A recent study of over 12000 images from the orbiter has observed that Mare Frigoris near the north pole, a vast basin assumed to be geologically dead, has been cracking and shifting. Since the Moon doesn't have tectonic plates, its tectonic activity is slow and cracks develop as it loses heat over the years.[67] (Abre numa nova janela)

Volcanic features

Main article: Volcanism on the Moon (Abre numa nova janela)

Lunar nearside (Abre numa nova janela) with major maria (Abre numa nova janela) and craters (Abre numa nova janela) labeled

The dark and relatively featureless lunar plains, clearly seen with the naked eye, are called maria (Abre numa nova janela) (Latin (Abre numa nova janela) for "seas"; singular mare), as they were once believed to be filled with water;[68] (Abre numa nova janela) they are now known to be vast solidified pools of ancient basaltic (Abre numa nova janela) lava. Although similar to terrestrial basalts, lunar basalts have more iron and no minerals altered by water.[69] (Abre numa nova janela) The majority of these lavas erupted or flowed into the depressions associated with impact basins (Abre numa nova janela). Several geologic provinces (Abre numa nova janela) containing shield volcanoes (Abre numa nova janela) and volcanic domes (Abre numa nova janela) are found within the near side "maria".[70] (Abre numa nova janela)

Evidence of young lunar volcanism (Abre numa nova janela)

Almost all maria are on the near side of the Moon, and cover 31% of the surface of the near side,[71] (Abre numa nova janela) compared with 2% of the far side.[72] (Abre numa nova janela) This is thought to be due to a concentration of heat-producing elements (Abre numa nova janela) under the crust on the near side, seen on geochemical maps obtained by Lunar Prospector (Abre numa nova janela)'s gamma-ray spectrometer, which would have caused the underlying mantle to heat up, partially melt, rise to the surface and erupt.[58] (Abre numa nova janela)[73] (Abre numa nova janela)[74] (Abre numa nova janela) Most of the Moon's mare basalts (Abre numa nova janela) erupted during the Imbrian period, 3.0–3.5 billion years ago, although some radiometrically dated samples are as old as 4.2 billion years.[75] (Abre numa nova janela) Until recently, the youngest eruptions, dated by crater counting (Abre numa nova janela), appeared to have been only 1.2 billion years ago.[76] (Abre numa nova janela) In 2006, a study of Ina (Abre numa nova janela), a tiny depression in Lacus Felicitatis (Abre numa nova janela), found jagged, relatively dust-free features that, because of the lack of erosion by infalling debris, appeared to be only 2 million years old.[77] (Abre numa nova janela) Moonquakes (Abre numa nova janela) and releases of gas also indicate some continued lunar activity.[77] (Abre numa nova janela) In 2014 NASA announced "widespread evidence of young lunar volcanism" at 70 irregular mare patches (Abre numa nova janela) identified by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, some less than 50 million years old. This raises the possibility of a much warmer lunar mantle than previously believed, at least on the near side where the deep crust is substantially warmer because of the greater concentration of radioactive elements.[78] (Abre numa nova janela)[79] (Abre numa nova janela)[80] (Abre numa nova janela)[81] (Abre numa nova janela) Just prior to this, evidence has been presented for 2–10 million years younger basaltic volcanism inside the crater Lowell,[82] (Abre numa nova janela)[83] (Abre numa nova janela) Orientale basin, located in the transition zone between the near and far sides of the Moon. An initially hotter mantle and/or local enrichment of heat-producing elements in the mantle could be responsible for prolonged activities also on the far side in the Orientale basin.[84] (Abre numa nova janela)[85] (Abre numa nova janela)

The lighter-colored regions of the Moon are called terrae, or more commonly highlands, because they are higher than most maria. They have been radiometrically dated to having formed 4.4 billion years ago, and may represent plagioclase (Abre numa nova janela)cumulates (Abre numa nova janela) of the lunar magma ocean.[75] (Abre numa nova janela)[76] (Abre numa nova janela) In contrast to Earth, no major lunar mountains are believed to have formed as a result of tectonic events.[86] (Abre numa nova janela)

The concentration of maria on the Near Side likely reflects the substantially thicker crust of the highlands of the Far Side, which may have formed in a slow-velocity impact of a second moon of Earth a few tens of millions of years after their formation.[87] (Abre numa nova janela)[88] (Abre numa nova janela)

Impact craters

Further information: List of craters on the Moon (Abre numa nova janela)

Lunar crater Daedalus (Abre numa nova janela) on the Moon's far side (Abre numa nova janela)

The other major geologic process that has affected the Moon's surface is impact cratering (Abre numa nova janela),[89] (Abre numa nova janela) with craters formed when asteroids and comets collide with the lunar surface. There are estimated to be roughly 300,000 craters wider than 1 km (0.6 mi) on the Moon's near side alone.[90] (Abre numa nova janela) The lunar geologic timescale (Abre numa nova janela) is based on the most prominent impact events, including Nectaris (Abre numa nova janela), Imbrium (Abre numa nova janela), and Orientale (Abre numa nova janela), structures characterized by multiple rings of uplifted material, between hundreds and thousands of kilometers in diameter and associated with a broad apron of ejecta deposits that form a regional stratigraphic horizon (Abre numa nova janela).[91] (Abre numa nova janela) The lack of an atmosphere, weather and recent geological processes mean that many of these craters are well-preserved. Although only a few multi-ring basins (Abre numa nova janela) have been definitively dated, they are useful for assigning relative ages. Because impact craters accumulate at a nearly constant rate, counting the number of craters per unit area can be used to estimate the age of the surface.[91] (Abre numa nova janela) The radiometric ages of impact-melted rocks collected during the Apollo missions (Abre numa nova janela) cluster between 3.8 and 4.1 billion years old: this has been used to propose a Late Heavy Bombardment (Abre numa nova janela) of impacts.[92] (Abre numa nova janela)

Blanketed on top of the Moon's crust is a highly comminuted (Abre numa nova janela) (broken into ever smaller particles) and impact gardened (Abre numa nova janela) surface layer called regolith (Abre numa nova janela), formed by impact processes. The finer regolith, the lunar soil (Abre numa nova janela) of silicon dioxide (Abre numa nova janela) glass, has a texture resembling snow and a scent resembling spent gunpowder (Abre numa nova janela).[93] (Abre numa nova janela)The regolith of older surfaces is generally thicker than for younger surfaces: it varies in thickness from 10–20 km (6.2–12.4 mi) in the highlands and 3–5 km (1.9–3.1 mi) in the maria.[94] (Abre numa nova janela) Beneath the finely comminuted regolith layer is the megaregolith, a layer of highly fractured bedrock many kilometers thick.[95] (Abre numa nova janela)

Comparison of high-resolution images obtained by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter has shown a contemporary crater-production rate significantly higher than previously estimated. A secondary cratering process caused by distal ejecta (Abre numa nova janela) is thought to churn the top two centimeters of regolith a hundred times more quickly than previous models suggested – on a timescale of 81,000 years.[96] (Abre numa nova janela)[97] (Abre numa nova janela)

Lunar swirls at Reiner Gamma (Abre numa nova janela)

Lunar swirls

Main article: Lunar swirls (Abre numa nova janela)

Lunar swirls are enigmatic features found across the Moon's surface. They are characterized by a high albedo, appear optically immature (i.e. the optical characteristics of a relatively young regolith), and have often a sinuous shape. Their shape is often accentuated by low albedo regions that wind between the bright swirls.

Presence of water

Main article: Lunar water (Abre numa nova janela)

Liquid water cannot persist on the lunar surface. When exposed to solar radiation, water quickly decomposes through a process known as photodissociation (Abre numa nova janela) and is lost to space. However, since the 1960s, scientists have hypothesized that water ice may be deposited by impacting comets (Abre numa nova janela) or possibly produced by the reaction of oxygen-rich lunar rocks, and hydrogen from solar wind (Abre numa nova janela), leaving traces of water which could possibly persist in cold, permanently shadowed craters at either pole on the Moon.[98] (Abre numa nova janela)[99] (Abre numa nova janela) Computer simulations suggest that up to 14,000 km2 (5,400 sq mi) of the surface may be in permanent shadow.[100] (Abre numa nova janela) The presence of usable quantities of water on the Moon is an important factor in rendering lunar habitation (Abre numa nova janela) as a cost-effective plan; the alternative of transporting water from Earth would be prohibitively expensive.[101] (Abre numa nova janela)

In years since, signatures of water have been found to exist on the lunar surface.[102] (Abre numa nova janela) In 1994, the bistatic radar experiment (Abre numa nova janela) located on the Clementine (Abre numa nova janela) spacecraft, indicated the existence of small, frozen pockets of water close to the surface. However, later radar observations by Arecibo (Abre numa nova janela), suggest these findings may rather be rocks ejected from young impact craters.[103] (Abre numa nova janela) In 1998, the neutron spectrometer (Abre numa nova janela) on the Lunar Prospector spacecraft showed that high concentrations of hydrogen are present in the first meter of depth in the regolith near the polar regions.[104] (Abre numa nova janela) Volcanic lava beads, brought back to Earth aboard Apollo 15, showed small amounts of water in their interior.[105] (Abre numa nova janela)

The 2008 Chandrayaan-1 (Abre numa nova janela) spacecraft has since confirmed the existence of surface water ice, using the on-board Moon Mineralogy Mapper (Abre numa nova janela). The spectrometer observed absorption lines common to hydroxyl (Abre numa nova janela), in reflected sunlight, providing evidence of large quantities of water ice, on the lunar surface. The spacecraft showed that concentrations may possibly be as high as 1,000 ppm (Abre numa nova janela).[106] (Abre numa nova janela) Using the mapper's reflectance spectra, indirect lighting of areas in shadow confirmed water ice within 20° latitude of both poles in 2018.[107] (Abre numa nova janela) In 2009, LCROSS (Abre numa nova janela) sent a 2,300 kg (5,100 lb) impactor into a permanently shadowed (Abre numa nova janela) polar crater, and detected at least 100 kg (220 lb) of water in a plume of ejected material.[108] (Abre numa nova janela)[109] (Abre numa nova janela) Another examination of the LCROSS data showed the amount of detected water to be closer to 155 ± 12 kg (342 ± 26 lb).[110] (Abre numa nova janela)

In May 2011, 615–1410 ppm water in melt inclusions (Abre numa nova janela) in lunar sample 74220 was reported,[111] (Abre numa nova janela) the famous high-titanium "orange glass soil" of volcanic origin collected during the Apollo 17 (Abre numa nova janela) mission in 1972. The inclusions were formed during explosive eruptions on the Moon approximately 3.7 billion years ago. This concentration is comparable with that of magma in Earth's upper mantle (Abre numa nova janela). Although of considerable selenological interest, this announcement affords little comfort to would-be lunar colonists – the sample originated many kilometers below the surface, and the inclusions are so difficult to access that it took 39 years to find them with a state-of-the-art ion microprobe instrument.

Analysis of the findings of the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) revealed in August 2018 for the first time "definitive evidence" for water-ice on the lunar surface.[112] (Abre numa nova janela)[113] (Abre numa nova janela) The data revealed the distinct reflective signatures of water-ice, as opposed to dust and other reflective substances.[114] (Abre numa nova janela) The ice deposits were found on the North and South poles, although it is more abundant in the South, where water is trapped in permanently shadowed craters and crevices, allowing it to persist as ice on the surface since they are shielded from the sun.[112] (Abre numa nova janela)[114] (Abre numa nova janela)

In October 2020, astronomers reported detecting molecular water (Abre numa nova janela) on the sunlit surface of the Moon by several independent spacecraft, including the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (Abre numa nova janela) (SOFIA).[115] (Abre numa nova janela)[116] (Abre numa nova janela)[117] (Abre numa nova janela)[118] (Abre numa nova janela)

Gravitational field

Main article: Gravity of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela)

GRAIL (Abre numa nova janela)'s gravity map of the Moon

The gravitational field (Abre numa nova janela) of the Moon has been measured through tracking the Doppler shift (Abre numa nova janela) of radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft. The main lunar gravity features are mascons (Abre numa nova janela), large positive gravitational anomalies associated with some of the giant impact basins, partly caused by the dense mare basaltic lava flows that fill those basins.[119] (Abre numa nova janela)[120] (Abre numa nova janela) The anomalies greatly influence the orbit of spacecraft about the Moon. There are some puzzles: lava flows by themselves cannot explain all of the gravitational signature, and some mascons exist that are not linked to mare volcanism.[121] (Abre numa nova janela)

Magnetic field

Main article: Magnetic field of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela)

The Moon has an external magnetic field (Abre numa nova janela) of generally less than 0.2 nanoteslas (Abre numa nova janela),[122] (Abre numa nova janela) or less than one hundred thousandth that of Earth (Abre numa nova janela). The Moon does not currently have a global dipolar (Abre numa nova janela) magnetic field and only has crustal magnetization likely acquired early in its history when a dynamo was still operating.[123] (Abre numa nova janela)[124] (Abre numa nova janela) However, early in its history, 4 billion years ago, its magnetic field strength was likely close to that of Earth today.[122] (Abre numa nova janela) This early dynamo field apparently expired by about one billion years ago, after the lunar core had completely crystallized.[122] (Abre numa nova janela) Theoretically, some of the remnant magnetization may originate from transient magnetic fields generated during large impacts through the expansion of plasma clouds. These clouds are generated during large impacts in an ambient magnetic field. This is supported by the location of the largest crustal magnetizations situated near the antipodes (Abre numa nova janela) of the giant impact basins.[125] (Abre numa nova janela)

Atmosphere

Main article: Atmosphere of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela)

Sketch by the Apollo 17 astronauts. The lunar atmosphere was later studied by LADEE (Abre numa nova janela).[126] (Abre numa nova janela)[127] (Abre numa nova janela)

The Moon has an atmosphere (Abre numa nova janela) so tenuous as to be nearly vacuum (Abre numa nova janela), with a total mass of less than 10 tonnes (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons).[128] (Abre numa nova janela) The surface pressure of this small mass is around 3 × 10−15 atm (Abre numa nova janela) (0.3 nPa (Abre numa nova janela)); it varies with the lunar day. Its sources include outgassing (Abre numa nova janela) and sputtering (Abre numa nova janela), a product of the bombardment of lunar soil by solar wind ions.[12] (Abre numa nova janela)[129] (Abre numa nova janela) Elements that have been detected include sodium (Abre numa nova janela) and potassium (Abre numa nova janela), produced by sputtering (also found in the atmospheres of Mercury (Abre numa nova janela) and Io (Abre numa nova janela)); helium-4 (Abre numa nova janela) and neon (Abre numa nova janela)[130] (Abre numa nova janela) from the solar wind; and argon-40 (Abre numa nova janela), radon-222 (Abre numa nova janela), and polonium-210 (Abre numa nova janela), outgassed after their creation by radioactive decay (Abre numa nova janela) within the crust and mantle.[131] (Abre numa nova janela)[132] (Abre numa nova janela) The absence of such neutral species (atoms or molecules) as oxygen (Abre numa nova janela), nitrogen (Abre numa nova janela), carbon (Abre numa nova janela), hydrogen (Abre numa nova janela) and magnesium (Abre numa nova janela), which are present in the regolith (Abre numa nova janela), is not understood.[131] (Abre numa nova janela) Water vapor has been detected by Chandrayaan-1 (Abre numa nova janela) and found to vary with latitude, with a maximum at ~60–70 degrees; it is possibly generated from the sublimation (Abre numa nova janela) of water ice in the regolith.[133] (Abre numa nova janela) These gases either return into the regolith because of the Moon's gravity or are lost to space, either through solar radiation pressure or, if they are ionized, by being swept away by the solar wind's magnetic field.[131] (Abre numa nova janela)

Dust

A permanent asymmetric Moon dust (Abre numa nova janela) cloud exists around the Moon, created by small particles from comets. Estimates are 5 tons of comet particles strike the Moon's surface every 24 hours. The particles striking the Moon's surface eject Moon dust above the Moon. The dust stays above the Moon approximately 10 minutes, taking 5 minutes to rise, and 5 minutes to fall. On average, 120 kilograms of dust are present above the Moon, rising to 100 kilometers above the surface. The dust measurements were made by LADEE (Abre numa nova janela)'s Lunar Dust EXperiment (LDEX), between 20 and 100 kilometers above the surface, during a six-month period. LDEX detected an average of one 0.3 micrometer Moon dust particle each minute. Dust particle counts peaked during the Geminid (Abre numa nova janela), Quadrantid (Abre numa nova janela), Northern Taurid (Abre numa nova janela), and Omicron Centaurid (Abre numa nova janela) meteor showers (Abre numa nova janela), when the Earth, and Moon, pass through comet debris. The cloud is asymmetric, more dense near the boundary between the Moon's dayside and nightside.[134] (Abre numa nova janela)[135] (Abre numa nova janela)

Past thicker atmosphere

In October 2017, NASA scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (Abre numa nova janela) and the Lunar and Planetary Institute (Abre numa nova janela) in Houston (Abre numa nova janela) announced their finding, based on studies of Moon magma samples retrieved by the Apollo (Abre numa nova janela) missions, that the Moon had once possessed a relatively thick atmosphere for a period of 70 million years between 3 and 4 billion years ago. This atmosphere, sourced from gases ejected from lunar volcanic eruptions, was twice the thickness of that of present-day Mars (Abre numa nova janela). The ancient lunar atmosphere was eventually stripped away by solar winds and dissipated into space.[136] (Abre numa nova janela)

Seasons

The Moon's axial tilt (Abre numa nova janela) with respect to the ecliptic (Abre numa nova janela) is only 1.5424°,[137] (Abre numa nova janela) much less than the 23.44° of Earth. Because of this, the Moon's solar illumination varies much less with season, and topographical details play a crucial role in seasonal effects.[138] (Abre numa nova janela) From images taken by Clementine (Abre numa nova janela) in 1994, it appears that four mountainous regions on the rim of the crater Peary (Abre numa nova janela) at the Moon's north pole may remain illuminated for the entire lunar day (Abre numa nova janela), creating peaks of eternal light (Abre numa nova janela). No such regions exist at the south pole. Similarly, there are places that remain in permanent shadow at the bottoms of many polar craters,[100] (Abre numa nova janela) and these "craters of eternal darkness (Abre numa nova janela)" are extremely cold: Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter measured the lowest summer temperatures in craters at the southern pole at 35 K (−238 °C; −397 °F)[139] (Abre numa nova janela) and just 26 K (−247 °C; −413 °F) close to the winter solstice in the north polar crater Hermite (Abre numa nova janela). This is the coldest temperature in the Solar System ever measured by a spacecraft, colder even than the surface of Pluto (Abre numa nova janela).[138] (Abre numa nova janela) Average temperatures of the Moon's surface are reported, but temperatures of different areas will vary greatly depending upon whether they are in sunlight or shadow.[140] (Abre numa nova janela)

Rotation

The Moon is rotating around its own axis. This rotation is due to tidal locking (Abre numa nova janela) synchronous to its orbital period (Abre numa nova janela) around Earth.

The rotation period (Abre numa nova janela) depends on the frame of reference. There are sidereal rotation periods (or sidereal day (Abre numa nova janela), in relation to the stars), and synodic rotation periods (or synodic day (Abre numa nova janela), in relation to the Sun). A lunar day (Abre numa nova janela) is a synodic day.

Because of the tidal locked rotation, the sidereal and synodic rotation periods correspond to the sidereal (27.3 Earth days) and synodic (29.5 Earth days) orbital periods.[141] (Abre numa nova janela)

Earth–Moon system

Lunar distance

Main article: Lunar distance (astronomy) (Abre numa nova janela)

This section is an excerpt from Lunar distance (astronomy) (Abre numa nova janela)[edit (Abre numa nova janela)]

Lunar distance (Abre numa nova janela) (LD or ), also called Earth–Moon distance, Earth–Moon characteristic distance, or distance to the Moon, is a unit of measure (Abre numa nova janela) in astronomy (Abre numa nova janela). It is the average distance from the center of Earth (Abre numa nova janela) to the center of the Moon. More technically, it is the mean semi-major axis (Abre numa nova janela) of the geocentric lunar orbit (Abre numa nova janela). It may also refer to the time-averaged distance between the centers of the Earth and the Moon, or less commonly, the instantaneous Earth–Moon distance. The lunar distance is approximately 400,000 km (Abre numa nova janela), which is a quarter of a million miles (Abre numa nova janela) or 1.28 light-seconds (Abre numa nova janela). This is roughly Earth's circumference (Abre numa nova janela) times ten, its diameter (Abre numa nova janela) times thirty or 1/389 of Earth's distance to the Sun (the astronomical unit (Abre numa nova janela)).A lunar distance, 384402 km (Abre numa nova janela), is the Moon's average distance to Earth. The actual distance varies over the course of its orbit (Abre numa nova janela). The image compares the Moon's apparent size (Abre numa nova janela) when it is closest (Abre numa nova janela)and farthest from Earth.

Scale model (Abre numa nova janela) of the Earth–Moon system: Sizes and distances are to scale.

Minimum, mean and maximum distances of the Moon from Earth with its angular diameter as seen from Earth's surface, to scale

Orbit

Main articles: Orbit of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela) and Lunar theory (Abre numa nova janela)

Animation of Moon's orbit around Earth from 2018 to 2027
Moon · Earth (Abre numa nova janela)

Earth–Moon system (schematic)

DSCOVR satellite (Abre numa nova janela) sees the Moon passing in front of Earth

The Moon makes a complete orbit around Earth with respect to the fixed stars about once every 27.3 days[g] (Abre numa nova janela) (its sidereal period (Abre numa nova janela)). However, because Earth is moving in its orbit around the Sun at the same time, it takes slightly longer for the Moon to show the same phase (Abre numa nova janela) to Earth, which is about 29.5 days[h] (Abre numa nova janela) (its synodic period (Abre numa nova janela)).[71] (Abre numa nova janela) Unlike most satellites of other planets, the Moon orbits closer to the ecliptic plane (Abre numa nova janela) than to the planet's equatorial plane (Abre numa nova janela). The Moon's orbit is subtly perturbed (Abre numa nova janela) by the Sun and Earth in many small, complex and interacting ways. For example, the plane of the Moon's orbit gradually rotates (Abre numa nova janela) once every 18.61 years,[142] (Abre numa nova janela) which affects other aspects of lunar motion. These follow-on effects are mathematically described by Cassini's laws (Abre numa nova janela).[143] (Abre numa nova janela)

Relative size

The Moon is an exceptionally large natural satellite relative to Earth: Its diameter is more than a quarter and its mass is 1/81 of Earth's.[71] (Abre numa nova janela) It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet,[i] (Abre numa nova janela) though Charon (Abre numa nova janela) is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto, at 1/9 Pluto's mass.[j] (Abre numa nova janela)[144] (Abre numa nova janela) The Earth and the Moon's barycentre (Abre numa nova janela), their common center of mass, is located 1,700 km (1,100 mi) (about a quarter of Earth's radius) beneath the Earth's surface.

The Earth revolves around the Earth-Moon barycentre once a sidereal month, with 1/81 the speed of the Moon, or about 12.5 metres (41 ft) per second. This motion is superimposed on the much larger revolution of the Earth around the Sun at a speed of about 30 kilometres (19 mi) per second.

The surface area of the Moon is slightly less than the areas of North and South America (Abre numa nova janela) combined.

Appearance from Earth

A full moon appears as a half moon during an eclipse moonset over the High Desert (Abre numa nova janela) in California, on the morning of the Trifecta: Full moon (Abre numa nova janela), Supermoon (Abre numa nova janela), Lunar eclipse (Abre numa nova janela), January 2018 lunar eclipse (Abre numa nova janela)

The Moon is in synchronous rotation (Abre numa nova janela) as it orbits (Abre numa nova janela) Earth; it rotates about its axis in about the same time it takes to orbit Earth. This results in it always keeping nearly the same face turned towards Earth. However, because of the effect of libration (Abre numa nova janela), about 59% of the Moon's surface can actually be seen from Earth. The side of the Moon that faces Earth is called the near side (Abre numa nova janela), and the opposite the far side (Abre numa nova janela). The far side is often inaccurately called the "dark side", but it is in fact illuminated as often as the near side: once every 29.5 Earth days. During new moon (Abre numa nova janela), the near side is dark.[145] (Abre numa nova janela)

The Moon had once rotated at a faster rate, but early in its history its rotation slowed and became tidally locked (Abre numa nova janela) in this orientation as a result of frictional (Abre numa nova janela) effects associated with tidal (Abre numa nova janela) deformations caused by Earth.[146] (Abre numa nova janela) With time, the energy of rotation of the Moon on its axis was dissipated as heat, until there was no rotation of the Moon relative to Earth. In 2016, planetary scientists using data collected on the much earlier NASA Lunar Prospector (Abre numa nova janela) mission, found two hydrogen-rich areas (most likely former water ice) on opposite sides of the Moon. It is speculated that these patches were the poles of the Moon billions of years ago before it was tidally locked to Earth.[147] (Abre numa nova janela)

The Moon is prominently featured in Vincent van Gogh (Abre numa nova janela)'s 1889 painting, The Starry Night (Abre numa nova janela)

The Moon has an exceptionally low albedo (Abre numa nova janela), giving it a reflectance (Abre numa nova janela) that is slightly brighter than that of worn asphalt (Abre numa nova janela). Despite this, it is the brightest object in the sky after the Sun (Abre numa nova janela).[71] (Abre numa nova janela)[k] (Abre numa nova janela) This is due partly to the brightness enhancement of the opposition surge (Abre numa nova janela); the Moon at quarter phase is only one-tenth as bright, rather than half as bright, as at full moon (Abre numa nova janela).[148] (Abre numa nova janela) Additionally, color constancy (Abre numa nova janela) in the visual system (Abre numa nova janela) recalibrates the relations between the colors of an object and its surroundings, and because the surrounding sky is comparatively dark, the sunlit Moon is perceived as a bright object. The edges of the full moon seem as bright as the center, without limb darkening (Abre numa nova janela), because of the reflective properties (Abre numa nova janela) of lunar soil (Abre numa nova janela), which retroreflects (Abre numa nova janela) light more towards the Sun than in other directions. The Moon does appear larger when close to the horizon, but this is a purely psychological effect, known as the moon illusion (Abre numa nova janela), first described in the 7th century BC.[149] (Abre numa nova janela) The full Moon's angular diameter (Abre numa nova janela) is about 0.52° (on average) in the sky, roughly the same apparent size as the Sun (see § Eclipses (Abre numa nova janela)).

14 November 2016 supermoon (Abre numa nova janela) was 356,511 kilometres (221,526 mi) away[152] (Abre numa nova janela) from the center of Earth, the closest occurrence since 26 January 1948. It will not be closer until 25 November 2034.[153] (Abre numa nova janela)

The distance between the Moon and Earth (Abre numa nova janela) varies from around 356,400 km (221,500 mi) to 406,700 km (252,700 mi) at perigee (Abre numa nova janela) (closest) and apogee (farthest), respectively. On 14 November 2016, it was closer to Earth when at full phase than it has been since 1948, 14% closer than its farthest position in apogee.[154] (Abre numa nova janela) Reported as a "supermoon (Abre numa nova janela)", this closest point coincided within an hour of a full moon, and it was 30% more luminous than when at its greatest distance because its angular diameter is 14% greater and .[155] (Abre numa nova janela)[156] (Abre numa nova janela)[157] (Abre numa nova janela) At lower levels, the human perception of reduced brightness as a percentage is provided by the following formula:[158] (Abre numa nova janela)[159] (Abre numa nova janela)

When the actual reduction is 1.00 / 1.30, or about 0.770, the perceived reduction is about 0.877, or 1.00 / 1.14. This gives a maximum perceived increase of 14% between apogee and perigee moons of the same phase.[160] (Abre numa nova janela)

There has been historical controversy over whether features on the Moon's surface change over time. Today, many of these claims are thought to be illusory, resulting from observation under different lighting conditions, poor astronomical seeing (Abre numa nova janela), or inadequate drawings. However, outgassing (Abre numa nova janela) does occasionally occur and could be responsible for a minor percentage of the reported lunar transient phenomena (Abre numa nova janela). Recently, it has been suggested that a roughly 3 km (1.9 mi) diameter region of the lunar surface was modified by a gas release event about a million years ago.[161] (Abre numa nova janela)[162] (Abre numa nova janela)

The Moon's appearance, like the Sun's, can be affected by Earth's atmosphere (Abre numa nova janela). Common optical effects are the 22° halo ring (Abre numa nova janela), formed when the Moon's light is refracted through the ice crystals (Abre numa nova janela) of high cirrostratus (Abre numa nova janela) clouds, and smaller coronal rings (Abre numa nova janela) when the Moon is seen through thin clouds.[163] (Abre numa nova janela)

The monthly changes in the angle between the direction of sunlight and view from Earth, and the phases of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela) that result, as viewed from the Northern Hemisphere (Abre numa nova janela). The Earth–Moon distance (Abre numa nova janela) is not to scale.

The illuminated area of the visible sphere (degree of illumination) is given by , where is the elongation (Abre numa nova janela) (i.e., the angle between Moon, the observer (on Earth) and the Sun).

Tidal effects

Main articles: Tidal force (Abre numa nova janela), Tidal acceleration (Abre numa nova janela), Tide (Abre numa nova janela), and Theory of tides (Abre numa nova janela)

The libration (Abre numa nova janela) of the Moon over a single lunar month. Also visible is the slight variation in the Moon's visual size from Earth.

The gravitational attraction that masses have for one another decreases inversely with the square of the distance of those masses from each other. As a result, the slightly greater attraction that the Moon has for the side of Earth closest to the Moon, as compared to the part of the Earth opposite the Moon, results in tidal forces (Abre numa nova janela). Tidal forces affect both the Earth's crust and oceans.

The most obvious effect of tidal forces is to cause two bulges in the Earth's oceans, one on the side facing the Moon and the other on the side opposite. This results in elevated sea levels called ocean tides (Abre numa nova janela).[164] (Abre numa nova janela) As the Earth rotates on its axis, one of the ocean bulges (high tide) is held in place "under" the Moon, while another such tide is opposite. As a result, there are two high tides, and two low tides in about 24 hours.[164] (Abre numa nova janela) Since the Moon is orbiting the Earth in the same direction of the Earth's rotation, the high tides occur about every 12 hours and 25 minutes; the 25 minutes is due to the Moon's time to orbit the Earth. The Sun has the same tidal effect on the Earth, but its forces of attraction are only 40% that of the Moon's; the Sun's and Moon's interplay is responsible for spring and neap tides (Abre numa nova janela).[164] (Abre numa nova janela) If the Earth were a water world (one with no continents) it would produce a tide of only one meter, and that tide would be very predictable, but the ocean tides are greatly modified by other effects: the frictional coupling of water to Earth's rotation through the ocean floors, the inertia (Abre numa nova janela) of water's movement, ocean basins that grow shallower near land, the sloshing of water between different ocean basins.[165] (Abre numa nova janela) As a result, the timing of the tides at most points on the Earth is a product of observations that are explained, incidentally, by theory.

While gravitation causes acceleration and movement of the Earth's fluid oceans, gravitational coupling between the Moon and Earth's solid body is mostly elastic and plastic. The result is a further tidal effect of the Moon on the Earth that causes a bulge of the solid portion of the Earth nearest the Moon that acts as a torque (Abre numa nova janela) in opposition to the Earth's rotation. This "drains" angular momentum (Abre numa nova janela) and rotational kinetic energy (Abre numa nova janela) from Earth's rotation, slowing the Earth's rotation.[164] (Abre numa nova janela)[166] (Abre numa nova janela) That angular momentum, lost from the Earth, is transferred to the Moon in a process (confusingly known as tidal acceleration (Abre numa nova janela)), which lifts the Moon into a higher orbit and results in its lower orbital speed about the Earth. Thus the distance between Earth and Moon is increasing (Abre numa nova janela), and the Earth's rotation is slowing in reaction.[166] (Abre numa nova janela) Measurements from laser reflectors left during the Apollo missions (lunar ranging experiments (Abre numa nova janela)) have found that the Moon's distance increases by 38 mm (1.5 in) per year[167] (Abre numa nova janela) (roughly the rate at which human fingernails grow).[168] (Abre numa nova janela) Atomic clocks (Abre numa nova janela)also show that Earth's day lengthens by about 15 microseconds (Abre numa nova janela) every year,[169] (Abre numa nova janela) slowly increasing the rate at which UTC (Abre numa nova janela) is adjusted by leap seconds (Abre numa nova janela). Left to run its course, this tidal drag would continue until the rotation of Earth and the orbital period of the Moon matched, creating mutual tidal locking between the two. As a result, the Moon would be suspended in the sky over one meridian, as is already currently the case with Pluto and its moon Charon. However, the Sun will become a red giant (Abre numa nova janela) engulfing the Earth-Moon system long before this occurrence.[170] (Abre numa nova janela)[171] (Abre numa nova janela) If it were to happen, the rotation of the earth would continue to slow down because of the tides caused by the sun. With the day longer than the month, the moon would move slowly from west to east in the sky. The tides caused by the moon would then cause the opposite effect from before, and the moon would get closer to the earth. Eventually it would come within the Roche limit (Abre numa nova janela) and be broken up into a ring (Abre numa nova janela).

In a like manner, the lunar surface experiences tides of around 10 cm (4 in) amplitude over 27 days, with two components: a fixed one due to Earth, because they are in synchronous rotation (Abre numa nova janela), and a varying component from the Sun.[166] (Abre numa nova janela) The Earth-induced component arises from libration (Abre numa nova janela), a result of the Moon's orbital eccentricity (if the Moon's orbit were perfectly circular, there would only be solar tides).[166] (Abre numa nova janela) Libration also changes the angle from which the Moon is seen, allowing a total of about 59% of its surface to be seen from Earth over time.[71] (Abre numa nova janela) The cumulative effects of stress built up by these tidal forces produces moonquakes (Abre numa nova janela). Moonquakes are much less common and weaker than are earthquakes, although moonquakes can last for up to an hour – significantly longer than terrestrial quakes – because of the absence of water to damp out the seismic vibrations. The existence of moonquakes was an unexpected discovery from seismometers (Abre numa nova janela) placed on the Moon by Apollo (Abre numa nova janela) astronauts (Abre numa nova janela) from 1969 through 1972.[172] (Abre numa nova janela)

According to recent research, scientists suggest that the Moon's influence on the Earth may contribute to maintaining Earth's magnetic field (Abre numa nova janela).[173] (Abre numa nova janela)

Eclipses

Main articles: Solar eclipse (Abre numa nova janela), Lunar eclipse (Abre numa nova janela), and Eclipse cycle (Abre numa nova janela)

From Earth, the Moon and the Sun appear the same size, as seen in the 1999 solar eclipse (Abre numa nova janela) (left), whereas from the STEREO-B (Abre numa nova janela) spacecraft in an Earth-trailing orbit, the Moon appears much smaller than the Sun (right).[174] (Abre numa nova janela)

Eclipses only occur when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are all in a straight line (termed "syzygy (Abre numa nova janela)"). Solar eclipses (Abre numa nova janela) occur at new moon (Abre numa nova janela), when the Moon is between the Sun and Earth. In contrast, lunar eclipses (Abre numa nova janela) occur at full moon, when Earth is between the Sun and Moon. The apparent size of the Moon is roughly the same as that of the Sun, with both being viewed at close to one-half a degree wide. The Sun is much larger than the Moon but it is the vastly greater distance that gives it the same apparent size as the much closer and much smaller Moon from the perspective of Earth. The variations in apparent size, due to the non-circular orbits, are nearly the same as well, though occurring in different cycles. This makes possible both total (Abre numa nova janela) (with the Moon appearing larger than the Sun) and annular (Abre numa nova janela) (with the Moon appearing smaller than the Sun) solar eclipses.[175] (Abre numa nova janela) In a total eclipse, the Moon completely covers the disc of the Sun and the solar corona (Abre numa nova janela) becomes visible to the naked eye (Abre numa nova janela). Because the distance between the Moon and Earth is very slowly increasing over time,[164] (Abre numa nova janela) the angular diameter of the Moon is decreasing. Also, as it evolves toward becoming a red giant (Abre numa nova janela), the size of the Sun, and its apparent diameter in the sky, are slowly increasing.[l] (Abre numa nova janela)The combination of these two changes means that hundreds of millions of years ago, the Moon would always completely cover the Sun on solar eclipses, and no annular eclipses were possible. Likewise, hundreds of millions of years in the future, the Moon will no longer cover the Sun completely, and total solar eclipses will not occur.[176] (Abre numa nova janela)

Because the Moon's orbit around Earth is inclined by about 5.145° (5° 9') to the orbit of Earth around the Sun (Abre numa nova janela), eclipses do not occur at every full and new moon. For an eclipse to occur, the Moon must be near the intersection of the two orbital planes.[177] (Abre numa nova janela) The periodicity and recurrence of eclipses of the Sun by the Moon, and of the Moon by Earth, is described by the saros (Abre numa nova janela), which has a period of approximately 18 years.[178] (Abre numa nova janela)

Because the Moon continuously blocks the view of a half-degree-wide circular area of the sky,[m] (Abre numa nova janela)[179] (Abre numa nova janela) the related phenomenon of occultation (Abre numa nova janela) occurs when a bright star or planet passes behind the Moon and is occulted: hidden from view. In this way, a solar eclipse is an occultation of the Sun. Because the Moon is comparatively close to Earth, occultations of individual stars are not visible everywhere on the planet, nor at the same time. Because of the precession (Abre numa nova janela) of the lunar orbit, each year different stars are occulted.[180] (Abre numa nova janela)

Observation and exploration

Main articles: Exploration of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela), List of spacecraft that orbited the Moon (Abre numa nova janela), List of missions to the Moon (Abre numa nova janela), and List of lunar probes (Abre numa nova janela)

Before spaceflight

Main article: Exploration of the Moon: Before spaceflight (Abre numa nova janela)

Map of the Moon by Johannes Hevelius (Abre numa nova janela) from his Selenographia (Abre numa nova janela) (1647), the first map to include the libration (Abre numa nova janela)zones

A study of the Moon in Robert Hooke's (Abre numa nova janela) Micrographia (Abre numa nova janela), 1665

One of the earliest-discovered possible depictions of the Moon is a 5000-year-old rock carving Orthostat 47 (Abre numa nova janela) at Knowth (Abre numa nova janela), Ireland.[181] (Abre numa nova janela)[182] (Abre numa nova janela)

Understanding of the Moon's cycles was an early development of astronomy: by the 5th century BC, Babylonian astronomers (Abre numa nova janela) had recorded the 18-year Saros cycle (Abre numa nova janela) of lunar eclipses (Abre numa nova janela),[183] (Abre numa nova janela) and Indian astronomers (Abre numa nova janela) had described the Moon's monthly elongation.[184] (Abre numa nova janela) The Chinese astronomer (Abre numa nova janela) Shi Shen (Abre numa nova janela)(fl. 4th century BC) gave instructions for predicting solar and lunar eclipses.[185] (Abre numa nova janela)(p411) Later, the physical form of the Moon and the cause of moonlight (Abre numa nova janela)became understood. The ancient Greek (Abre numa nova janela) philosopher Anaxagoras (Abre numa nova janela) (d. 428 BC) reasoned that the Sun and Moon were both giant spherical rocks, and that the latter reflected the light of the former.[186] (Abre numa nova janela)[185] (Abre numa nova janela)(p227) Although the Chinese of the Han Dynasty (Abre numa nova janela) believed the Moon to be energy equated to qi (Abre numa nova janela), their 'radiating influence' theory also recognized that the light of the Moon was merely a reflection of the Sun, and Jing Fang (Abre numa nova janela) (78–37 BC) noted the sphericity of the Moon.[185] (Abre numa nova janela)(pp413–414) In the 2nd century AD, Lucian (Abre numa nova janela) wrote the novel A True Story (Abre numa nova janela), in which the heroes travel to the Moon and meet its inhabitants. In 499 AD, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata (Abre numa nova janela) mentioned in his Aryabhatiya (Abre numa nova janela) that reflected sunlight is the cause of the shining of the Moon.[187] (Abre numa nova janela) The astronomer and physicist Alhazen (Abre numa nova janela) (965–1039) found that sunlight (Abre numa nova janela) was not reflected from the Moon like a mirror, but that light was emitted from every part of the Moon's sunlit surface in all directions.[188] (Abre numa nova janela) Shen Kuo (Abre numa nova janela) (1031–1095) of the Song dynasty (Abre numa nova janela) created an allegory equating the waxing and waning of the Moon to a round ball of reflective silver that, when doused with white powder and viewed from the side, would appear to be a crescent.[185] (Abre numa nova janela)(pp415–416)

Galileo (Abre numa nova janela)'s sketches of the Moon from Sidereus Nuncius (Abre numa nova janela)

In Aristotle (Abre numa nova janela)'s (384–322 BC) description of the universe (Abre numa nova janela), the Moon marked the boundary between the spheres of the mutable elements (earth, water, air and fire), and the imperishable stars of aether (Abre numa nova janela), an influential philosophy (Abre numa nova janela) that would dominate for centuries.[189] (Abre numa nova janela) However, in the 2nd century BC, Seleucus of Seleucia (Abre numa nova janela) correctly theorized that tides (Abre numa nova janela) were due to the attraction of the Moon, and that their height depends on the Moon's position relative to the Sun (Abre numa nova janela).[190] (Abre numa nova janela) In the same century, Aristarchus (Abre numa nova janela) computed the size and distance (Abre numa nova janela) of the Moon from Earth, obtaining a value of about twenty times the radius of Earth (Abre numa nova janela) for the distance. These figures were greatly improved by Ptolemy (Abre numa nova janela) (90–168 AD): his values of a mean distance of 59 times Earth's radius and a diameter of 0.292 Earth diameters were close to the correct values of about 60 and 0.273 respectively.[191] (Abre numa nova janela) Archimedes (Abre numa nova janela) (287–212 BC) designed a planetarium that could calculate the motions of the Moon and other objects in the Solar System.[192] (Abre numa nova janela)

During the Middle Ages (Abre numa nova janela), before the invention of the telescope, the Moon was increasingly recognised as a sphere, though many believed that it was "perfectly smooth".[193] (Abre numa nova janela)

In 1609, Galileo Galilei (Abre numa nova janela) drew one of the first telescopic drawings of the Moon in his book Sidereus Nuncius (Abre numa nova janela) and noted that it was not smooth but had mountains and craters. Thomas Harriot (Abre numa nova janela) had made, but not published such drawings a few months earlier. Telescopic mapping of the Moon followed: later in the 17th century, the efforts of Giovanni Battista Riccioli (Abre numa nova janela) and Francesco Maria Grimaldi (Abre numa nova janela) led to the system of naming of lunar features in use today. The more exact 1834–36 Mappa Selenographica of Wilhelm Beer (Abre numa nova janela) and Johann Heinrich Mädler (Abre numa nova janela), and their associated 1837 book Der Mond, the first trigonometrically (Abre numa nova janela) accurate study of lunar features, included the heights of more than a thousand mountains, and introduced the study of the Moon at accuracies possible in earthly geography.[194] (Abre numa nova janela) Lunar craters, first noted by Galileo, were thought to be volcanic (Abre numa nova janela) until the 1870s proposal of Richard Proctor (Abre numa nova janela)that they were formed by collisions.[71] (Abre numa nova janela) This view gained support in 1892 from the experimentation of geologist Grove Karl Gilbert (Abre numa nova janela), and from comparative studies from 1920 to the 1940s,[195] (Abre numa nova janela) leading to the development of lunar stratigraphy (Abre numa nova janela), which by the 1950s was becoming a new and growing branch of astrogeology (Abre numa nova janela).[71] (Abre numa nova janela)

1959–1970s

Between the first human arrival with the robotic Soviet (Abre numa nova janela) Luna program (Abre numa nova janela) in 1958, to the 1970s with the last Missions of the crewed U.S. (Abre numa nova janela) Apollo landings (Abre numa nova janela) and last Luna mission in 1976, the Cold War (Abre numa nova janela)-inspired Space Race (Abre numa nova janela) between the Soviet Union and the U.S. led to an acceleration of interest in exploration of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela). Once launchers had the necessary capabilities, these nations sent uncrewed probes on both flyby and impact/lander missions.

Soviet missions

Main articles: Luna program (Abre numa nova janela) and Lunokhod programme (Abre numa nova janela)

First view in history of the far side of the Moon, taken by Luna 3 (Abre numa nova janela), 7 October 1959

A model of Soviet Moon rover Lunokhod 1 (Abre numa nova janela)

Spacecraft from the Soviet Union's Luna program (Abre numa nova janela) were the first to accomplish a number of goals: following three unnamed, failed missions in 1958,[196] (Abre numa nova janela) the first human-made object to escape Earth's gravity and pass near the Moon was Luna 1 (Abre numa nova janela); the first human-made object to impact the lunar surface was Luna 2 (Abre numa nova janela), and the first photographs of the normally occluded far side of the Moon were made by Luna 3 (Abre numa nova janela), all in 1959.

Stamp with a drawing of the first soft landed probe Luna 9 (Abre numa nova janela), next to the first view of the lunar surface photographed by the probe

Luna 24 was the last Soviet mission to the Moon.

United States missions

Main articles: Apollo program (Abre numa nova janela) and Moon landing (Abre numa nova janela)

Earthrise (Abre numa nova janela) (Apollo 8 (Abre numa nova janela), 1968, taken by William Anders (Abre numa nova janela))

Moon rock (Abre numa nova janela) (Apollo 17 (Abre numa nova janela), 1972)

During the late 1950s at the height of the Cold War, the United States Army conducted a classified feasibility study (Abre numa nova janela) that proposed the construction of a staffed military outpost on the Moon called Project Horizon (Abre numa nova janela) with the potential to conduct a wide range of missions from scientific research to nuclear Earth bombardment. The study included the possibility of conducting a lunar-based nuclear test.[198] (Abre numa nova janela)[199] (Abre numa nova janela) The Air Force, which at the time was in competition with the Army for a leading role in the space program, developed its own similar plan called Lunex (Abre numa nova janela).[200] (Abre numa nova janela)[201] (Abre numa nova janela)[198] (Abre numa nova janela) However, both these proposals were ultimately passed over as the space program was largely transferred from the military to the civilian agency NASA.[201] (Abre numa nova janela)

Following President John F. Kennedy (Abre numa nova janela)'s 1961 commitment to a human moon landing before the end of the decade, the United States, under NASA leadership, launched a series of uncrewed probes to develop an understanding of the lunar surface in preparation for human missions: the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (Abre numa nova janela)'s Ranger program (Abre numa nova janela) produced the first close-up pictures; the Lunar Orbiter program (Abre numa nova janela) produced maps of the entire Moon; the Surveyor program (Abre numa nova janela)landed its first spacecraft (Abre numa nova janela) four months after Luna 9. The crewed Apollo program was developed in parallel; after a series of uncrewed and crewed tests of the Apollo spacecraft in Earth orbit, and spurred on by a potential Soviet lunar human landing (Abre numa nova janela), in 1968 Apollo 8 (Abre numa nova janela) made the first human mission to lunar orbit. The subsequent landing of the first humans on the Moon in 1969 is seen by many as the culmination of the Space Race.[202] (Abre numa nova janela)

Neil Armstrong (Abre numa nova janela) working at the Lunar Module Eagle (Abre numa nova janela) during Apollo 11 (Abre numa nova janela) (1969)

"That's one small step ..." (Abre numa nova janela)

0:00

Problems playing this file? See media help (Abre numa nova janela).

Neil Armstrong (Abre numa nova janela) became the first person to walk on the Moon as the commander of the American mission Apollo 11 (Abre numa nova janela) by first setting foot on the Moon at 02:56 UTC on 21 July 1969.[203] (Abre numa nova janela) An estimated 500 million people worldwide watched the transmission by the Apollo TV camera (Abre numa nova janela), the largest television audience for a live broadcast at that time.[204] (Abre numa nova janela)[205] (Abre numa nova janela) The Apollo missions 11 to 17 (except Apollo 13 (Abre numa nova janela), which aborted its planned lunar landing) removed 380.05 kilograms (837.87 lb) of lunar rock and soil in 2,196 separate samples.[206] (Abre numa nova janela) The American Moon landing (Abre numa nova janela) and return was enabled by considerable technological advances in the early 1960s, in domains such as ablation (Abre numa nova janela) chemistry, software engineering (Abre numa nova janela), and atmospheric re-entry (Abre numa nova janela) technology, and by highly competent management of the enormous technical undertaking.[207] (Abre numa nova janela)[208] (Abre numa nova janela)

Scientific instrument packages were installed on the lunar surface during all the Apollo landings. Long-lived instrument stations (Abre numa nova janela), including heat flow probes, seismometers (Abre numa nova janela), and magnetometers (Abre numa nova janela), were installed at the Apollo 12 (Abre numa nova janela), 14 (Abre numa nova janela), 15 (Abre numa nova janela), 16 (Abre numa nova janela), and 17 (Abre numa nova janela) landing sites. Direct transmission of data to Earth concluded in late 1977 because of budgetary considerations,[209] (Abre numa nova janela)[210] (Abre numa nova janela)but as the stations' lunar laser ranging (Abre numa nova janela) corner-cube retroreflector arrays are passive instruments, they are still being used. Ranging to the stations is routinely performed from Earth-based stations with an accuracy of a few centimeters, and data from this experiment are being used to place constraints on the size of the lunar core.[211] (Abre numa nova janela)

1970s – present

An artificially (Abre numa nova janela) colored mosaic constructed from a series of 53 images taken through three spectral filters (Abre numa nova janela) by Galileo' s imaging system as the spacecraft flew over the northern regions of the Moon on 7 December 1992.

After the Moon race the focus of astronautic exploration shifted in the 1970s with probes like Pioneer 10 (Abre numa nova janela) and the Voyager program (Abre numa nova janela) towards the outer solar system (Abre numa nova janela). Years of near lunar quietude followed, only broken by a beginning internationalization of space and the Moon through for example the negotiation of the Moon treaty (Abre numa nova janela).

Since the 1990s, many more countries have become involved in direct exploration of the Moon. In 1990, Japan became the third country to place a spacecraft into lunar orbit with its Hiten (Abre numa nova janela) spacecraft. The spacecraft released a smaller probe, Hagoromo, in lunar orbit, but the transmitter failed, preventing further scientific use of the mission.[212] (Abre numa nova janela) In 1994, the U.S. sent the joint Defense Department/NASA spacecraft Clementine (Abre numa nova janela) to lunar orbit. This mission obtained the first near-global topographic map of the Moon, and the first global multispectral (Abre numa nova janela) images of the lunar surface.[213] (Abre numa nova janela) This was followed in 1998 by the Lunar Prospector (Abre numa nova janela) mission, whose instruments indicated the presence of excess hydrogen at the lunar poles, which is likely to have been caused by the presence of water ice in the upper few meters of the regolith within permanently shadowed craters.[214] (Abre numa nova janela)

As viewed by Chandrayaan-1 (Abre numa nova janela)'s NASA Moon Mineralogy Mapper equipment, on the right, the first time discovered water-rich minerals (light blue), shown around a small crater from which it was ejected.

The European spacecraft SMART-1 (Abre numa nova janela), the second ion-propelled (Abre numa nova janela) spacecraft, was in lunar orbit from 15 November 2004 until its lunar impact on 3 September 2006, and made the first detailed survey of chemical elements on the lunar surface.[215] (Abre numa nova janela)

The ambitious Chinese Lunar Exploration Program (Abre numa nova janela) began with Chang'e 1 (Abre numa nova janela), which successfully orbited the Moon from 5 November 2007 until its controlled lunar impact on 1 March 2009.[216] (Abre numa nova janela) It obtained a full image map of the Moon. Chang'e 2 (Abre numa nova janela), beginning in October 2010, reached the Moon more quickly, mapped the Moon at a higher resolution over an eight-month period, then left lunar orbit for an extended stay at the Earth–Sun L2 Lagrangian point (Abre numa nova janela), before finally performing a flyby of asteroid 4179 Toutatis (Abre numa nova janela) on 13 December 2012, and then heading off into deep space. On 14 December 2013, Chang'e 3 (Abre numa nova janela) landed a lunar lander (Abre numa nova janela) onto the Moon's surface, which in turn deployed a lunar rover (Abre numa nova janela), named Yutu (Abre numa nova janela) (Chinese: 玉兔; literally "Jade Rabbit"). This was the first lunar soft landing (Abre numa nova janela) since Luna 24 (Abre numa nova janela) in 1976, and the first lunar rover mission since Lunokhod 2 (Abre numa nova janela) in 1973. Another rover mission (Chang'e 4 (Abre numa nova janela)) was launched in 2019, becoming the first ever spacecraft to land on the Moon's far side. China intends to following this up with a sample return mission (Abre numa nova janela) (Chang'e 5 (Abre numa nova janela)) in 2020.[217] (Abre numa nova janela)

Between 4 October 2007 and 10 June 2009, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (Abre numa nova janela)'s Kaguya (Abre numa nova janela) (Selene) mission, a lunar orbiter fitted with a high-definition video (Abre numa nova janela) camera, and two small radio-transmitter satellites, obtained lunar geophysics data and took the first high-definition movies from beyond Earth orbit.[218] (Abre numa nova janela)[219] (Abre numa nova janela) India's first lunar mission, Chandrayaan-1 (Abre numa nova janela), orbited from 8 November 2008 until loss of contact on 27 August 2009, creating a high-resolution chemical, mineralogical and photo-geological map of the lunar surface, and confirming the presence of water molecules in lunar soil (Abre numa nova janela).[220] (Abre numa nova janela) The Indian Space Research Organisation (Abre numa nova janela) planned to launch Chandrayaan-2 (Abre numa nova janela) in 2013, which would have included a Russian robotic lunar rover.[221] (Abre numa nova janela)[222] (Abre numa nova janela) However, the failure of Russia's Fobos-Grunt (Abre numa nova janela) mission has delayed this project, and was launched on 22 July 2019. The lander Vikram attempted to land on the lunar south pole region (Abre numa nova janela) on 6 September, but lost the signal in 2.1 km (1.3 mi). What happened after that is unknown.

Copernicus (Abre numa nova janela)'s central peaks as observed by the LRO (Abre numa nova janela), 2012

The Ina (Abre numa nova janela) formation, 2009

The U.S. co-launched the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and the LCROSS (Abre numa nova janela) impactor and follow-up observation orbiter on 18 June 2009; LCROSScompleted its mission by making a planned and widely observed impact in the crater Cabeus (Abre numa nova janela) on 9 October 2009,[223] (Abre numa nova janela) whereas LRO is currently in operation, obtaining precise lunar altimetry (Abre numa nova janela) and high-resolution imagery. In November 2011, the LRO passed over the large and bright crater Aristarchus (Abre numa nova janela). NASA released photos of the crater on 25 December 2011.[224] (Abre numa nova janela)

Two NASA GRAIL (Abre numa nova janela) spacecraft began orbiting the Moon around 1 January 2012,[225] (Abre numa nova janela) on a mission to learn more about the Moon's internal structure. NASA's LADEE (Abre numa nova janela) probe, designed to study the lunar exosphere (Abre numa nova janela), achieved orbit on 6 October 2013.

Future

Upcoming lunar missions include Russia's Luna-Glob (Abre numa nova janela): an uncrewed lander with a set of seismometers, and an orbiter based on its failed Martian Fobos-Grunt (Abre numa nova janela) mission.[226] (Abre numa nova janela) Privately funded lunar exploration has been promoted by the Google Lunar X Prize (Abre numa nova janela), announced 13 September 2007, which offers US$20 million to anyone who can land a robotic rover on the Moon and meet other specified criteria.[227] (Abre numa nova janela) Shackleton Energy Company (Abre numa nova janela) is building a program to establish operations on the south pole of the Moon to harvest water and supply their Propellant Depots (Abre numa nova janela).[228] (Abre numa nova janela)

NASA began to plan to resume human missions (Abre numa nova janela) following the call by U.S. President George W. Bush (Abre numa nova janela) on 14 January 2004 for a human mission to the Moon by 2019 and the construction of a lunar base by 2024.[229] (Abre numa nova janela) The Constellation program (Abre numa nova janela) was funded and construction and testing begun on a crewed spacecraft (Abre numa nova janela) and launch vehicle (Abre numa nova janela),[230] (Abre numa nova janela) and design studies for a lunar base.[231] (Abre numa nova janela) However, that program has been canceled in favor of a human asteroid landing by 2025 and a human Mars orbit by 2035.[232] (Abre numa nova janela) India (Abre numa nova janela) has also expressed its hope to send people to the Moon by 2020.[233] (Abre numa nova janela)

On 28 February 2018, SpaceX (Abre numa nova janela), Vodafone (Abre numa nova janela), Nokia (Abre numa nova janela) and Audi (Abre numa nova janela) announced a collaboration to install a 4G (Abre numa nova janela) wireless communication network on the Moon, with the aim of streaming live footage on the surface to Earth.[234] (Abre numa nova janela)

Recent reports also indicate NASA's intent to send a woman astronaut to the Moon in their planned mid-2020s mission.[235] (Abre numa nova janela)

Planned commercial missions

In 2007, the X Prize Foundation together with Google (Abre numa nova janela) launched the Google Lunar X Prize (Abre numa nova janela) to encourage commercial endeavors to the Moon. A prize of $20 million was to be awarded to the first private venture to get to the Moon with a robotic lander by the end of March 2018, with additional prizes worth $10 million for further milestones.[236] (Abre numa nova janela)[237] (Abre numa nova janela) As of August 2016, 16 teams were reportedly participating in the competition.[238] (Abre numa nova janela) In January 2018 the foundation announced that the prize would go unclaimed as none of the finalist teams would be able to make a launch attempt by the deadline.[239] (Abre numa nova janela)

In August 2016, the US government granted permission to US-based start-up Moon Express to land on the Moon.[240] (Abre numa nova janela) This marked the first time that a private enterprise was given the right to do so. The decision is regarded as a precedent helping to define regulatory standards for deep-space commercial activity in the future, as thus far companies' operation had been restricted to being on or around Earth.[240] (Abre numa nova janela)

On 29 November 2018 NASA announced that nine commercial companies would compete to win a contract to send small payloads to the Moon in what is known as Commercial Lunar Payload Services (Abre numa nova janela). According to NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine (Abre numa nova janela), "We are building a domestic American capability to get back and forth to the surface of the moon.".[241] (Abre numa nova janela)

Human presence

Human impact

Remains of human activity, Apollo 17's Lunar Surface Experiments Package (Abre numa nova janela)

Beside the traces of human activity on the Moon, there have been some intended permanent installations like the Moon Museum (Abre numa nova janela) art piece, Apollo 11 goodwill messages (Abre numa nova janela), Lunar plaque (Abre numa nova janela), the Fallen Astronaut (Abre numa nova janela) memorial, and other artifacts.

Fallen Astronaut (Abre numa nova janela)

Infrastructure

Main article: Moonbase (Abre numa nova janela)

A photo of the still in use reflector of the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment (Abre numa nova janela) of Apollo 11 (Abre numa nova janela).

Longterm missions continuing to be active are some orbiters such as the 2009 launched Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (Abre numa nova janela) surveiling the Moon for future missions, as well as some Landers such as the 2013 launched Chang'e 3 (Abre numa nova janela) with its Lunar Ultraviolet Telescope still operational.[242] (Abre numa nova janela)

There are several missions by different agencies and companies planned (Abre numa nova janela) to establish a longterm human presence on the Moon, with the Lunar Gateway (Abre numa nova janela) as the currently most advanced project as part of the Artemis program (Abre numa nova janela).

Concept art of the Lunar Gateway (Abre numa nova janela) of the Artemis program (Abre numa nova janela) in 2024 serving as a communication hub, science laboratory, short-term habitation and holding area for rovers in lunar orbit (Abre numa nova janela).[243] (Abre numa nova janela)

Astronomy from the Moon

A false-color image of Earth (Abre numa nova janela) in ultraviolet light (Abre numa nova janela) taken from the surface of the Moon on the Apollo 16 (Abre numa nova janela) mission. The day-side reflects a large amount of UV light from the Sun, but the night-side shows faint bands of UV emission from the aurora (Abre numa nova janela) caused by charged particles.[244] (Abre numa nova janela)

For many years, the Moon has been recognized as an excellent site for telescopes.[245] (Abre numa nova janela) It is relatively nearby; astronomical seeing (Abre numa nova janela) is not a concern; certain craters near the poles are permanently dark and cold, and thus especially useful for infrared telescopes (Abre numa nova janela); and radio telescopes (Abre numa nova janela) on the far side would be shielded from the radio chatter of Earth.[246] (Abre numa nova janela) The lunar soil (Abre numa nova janela), although it poses a problem for any moving parts of telescopes (Abre numa nova janela), can be mixed with carbon nanotubes (Abre numa nova janela) and epoxies (Abre numa nova janela) and employed in the construction of mirrors up to 50 meters in diameter.[247] (Abre numa nova janela) A lunar zenith telescope (Abre numa nova janela) can be made cheaply with an ionic liquid (Abre numa nova janela).[248] (Abre numa nova janela)

In April 1972, the Apollo 16 (Abre numa nova janela) mission recorded various astronomical photos and spectra in ultraviolet with the Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph (Abre numa nova janela).[249] (Abre numa nova janela)

Living on the Moon

Humans have stayed for days on the Moon, such as during Apollo 17.[250] (Abre numa nova janela) One particular challenge for astronauts' daily life during their stay on the surface is the lunar dust (Abre numa nova janela) sticking to their suits and being carried into their quarters. Subsequently, the dust was tasted and smelled by the astronauts, calling it the "Apollo aroma".[251] (Abre numa nova janela) This contamination poses a danger since the fine lunar dust can cause health issues (Abre numa nova janela).[251] (Abre numa nova janela)

In 2019 at least one plant seed sprouted in an experiment, carried along with other small life from Earth on the Chang'e 4 lander (Abre numa nova janela) in its Lunar Micro Ecosystem.[252] (Abre numa nova janela)

Legal status

Main article: Space law (Abre numa nova janela)

Although Luna (Abre numa nova janela) landers scattered pennants of the Soviet Union (Abre numa nova janela) on the Moon, and U.S. flags (Abre numa nova janela) were symbolically planted at their landing sites by the Apollo astronauts (Abre numa nova janela), no nation claims ownership of any part of the Moon's surface.[253] (Abre numa nova janela) Russia, China, India, and the U.S. are party to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty (Abre numa nova janela),[254] (Abre numa nova janela) which defines the Moon and all outer space as the "province of all mankind (Abre numa nova janela)".[253] (Abre numa nova janela) This treaty also restricts the use of the Moon to peaceful purposes, explicitly banning military installations and weapons of mass destruction (Abre numa nova janela).[255] (Abre numa nova janela) The 1979 Moon Agreement (Abre numa nova janela) was created to restrict the exploitation of the Moon's resources (Abre numa nova janela) by any single nation, but as of January 2020, it has been signed and ratified by only 18 nations,[256] (Abre numa nova janela) none of which engages in self-launched human space exploration (Abre numa nova janela). Although several individuals have made claims to the Moon (Abre numa nova janela) in whole or in part, none of these are considered credible.[257] (Abre numa nova janela)[258] (Abre numa nova janela)[259] (Abre numa nova janela)

In 2020, U.S. President Donald Trump (Abre numa nova janela) signed an executive order called "Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources". The order emphasizes that "the United States does not view outer space as a 'global commons'" and calls the Moon Agreement "a failed attempt at constraining free enterprise."[260] (Abre numa nova janela)[261] (Abre numa nova janela)

The Declaration of the Rights of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela) was created by a group of independent researchers in 2021, drawing on precedents in the Rights of Nature (Abre numa nova janela) movement and the concept of legal personality for non-human entities in space[262] (Abre numa nova janela).

In culture

Luna, the Moon, from a 1550 edition of Guido Bonatti (Abre numa nova janela)'s Liber astronomiae

Mythology

Further information: Lunar deity (Abre numa nova janela), Selene (Abre numa nova janela), Luna (goddess) (Abre numa nova janela), Man in the Moon (Abre numa nova janela), and Crescent (Abre numa nova janela)

Statue of Chandraprabha (Abre numa nova janela) (meaning "as charming as the moon"), the eighth Tirthankara (Abre numa nova janela) in Jainism (Abre numa nova janela), with the symbol of a crescent (Abre numa nova janela) moon below it

Sun and Moon with faces (1493 woodcut)

The contrast between the brighter highlands and the darker maria creates the patterns seen by different cultures as the Man in the Moon (Abre numa nova janela), the rabbit (Abre numa nova janela)and the buffalo, among others. In many prehistoric and ancient cultures, the Moon was personified as a deity (Abre numa nova janela) or other supernatural (Abre numa nova janela) phenomenon, and astrological views of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela) continue to be propagated today.

In Mesopotamian iconography, the crescent (Abre numa nova janela) was the primary symbol of Nanna-Sîn.[265] (Abre numa nova janela) In ancient Greek art (Abre numa nova janela), the Moon goddess Selene (Abre numa nova janela) was represented wearing a crescent on her headgear in an arrangement reminiscent of horns.[266] (Abre numa nova janela)[267] (Abre numa nova janela) The star and crescent (Abre numa nova janela) arrangement also goes back to the Bronze Age, representing either the Sun and Moon, or the Moon and planet Venus, in combination. It came to represent the goddess Artemis (Abre numa nova janela) or Hecate (Abre numa nova janela), and via the patronage of Hecate came to be used as a symbol of Byzantium (Abre numa nova janela).

An iconographic tradition of representing Sun and Moon with faces developed in the late medieval period.

The splitting of the moon (Abre numa nova janela) (Arabic (Abre numa nova janela): انشقاق القمر‎) is a miracle attributed to Muhammad (Abre numa nova janela).[268] (Abre numa nova janela) A song titled 'Moon Anthem' was released on the occasion of landing of India's Chandrayan-II on the Moon.[269] (Abre numa nova janela)

Calendar

Further information: Lunar calendar (Abre numa nova janela), Lunisolar calendar (Abre numa nova janela), Metonic cycle (Abre numa nova janela), Blue moon (Abre numa nova janela), and Movable feast (Abre numa nova janela)

The Moon's regular phases make it a very convenient timepiece, and the periods of its waxing and waning form the basis of many of the oldest calendars. Tally sticks (Abre numa nova janela), notched bones dating as far back as 20–30,000 years ago, are believed by some to mark the phases of the Moon.[270] (Abre numa nova janela)[271] (Abre numa nova janela)[272] (Abre numa nova janela) The ~30-day month is an approximation of the lunar cycle (Abre numa nova janela). The English noun month and its cognates in other Germanic languages stem from Proto-Germanic *mǣnṓth-, which is connected to the above-mentioned Proto-Germanic *mǣnōn, indicating the usage of a lunar calendar (Abre numa nova janela) among the Germanic peoples (Abre numa nova janela) (Germanic calendar (Abre numa nova janela)) prior to the adoption of a solar calendar (Abre numa nova janela).[273] (Abre numa nova janela) The PIE root (Abre numa nova janela) of moon, *méh1nōt, derives from the PIE verbal root *meh1-, "to measure", "indicat[ing] a functional conception of the Moon, i.e. marker of the month" (cf. (Abre numa nova janela) the English words measure and menstrual),[274] (Abre numa nova janela)[275] (Abre numa nova janela)[276] (Abre numa nova janela) and echoing the Moon's importance to many ancient cultures in measuring time (see Latin (Abre numa nova janela) mensis and Ancient Greek (Abre numa nova janela) μείς (meis) or μήν (mēn), meaning "month").[277] (Abre numa nova janela)[278] (Abre numa nova janela)[279] (Abre numa nova janela)[280] (Abre numa nova janela)Most historical calendars are lunisolar (Abre numa nova janela). The 7th-century Islamic calendar (Abre numa nova janela) is an exceptional example of a purely lunar calendar (Abre numa nova janela). Months are traditionally determined by the visual sighting of the hilal, or earliest crescent moon, over the horizon.[281] (Abre numa nova janela)

Moonrise, 1884, painting by Stanisław Masłowski (Abre numa nova janela) (National Museum, Kraków (Abre numa nova janela), Gallery of Sukiennice Museum (Abre numa nova janela))

Lunar effect

Main article: Lunar effect (Abre numa nova janela)

The lunar effect is a purported unproven correlation between specific stages of the roughly 29.5-day lunar cycle and behavior and physiological changes in living beings on Earth, including humans.

The Moon has long been particularly associated with insanity and irrationality; the words lunacy and lunatic (Abre numa nova janela) (popular shortening loony) are derived from the Latin name for the Moon, Luna. Philosophers Aristotle (Abre numa nova janela) and Pliny the Elder (Abre numa nova janela) argued that the full moon induced insanity in susceptible individuals, believing that the brain, which is mostly water, must be affected by the Moon and its power over the tides, but the Moon's gravity is too slight to affect any single person.[282] (Abre numa nova janela) Even today, people who believe in a lunar effect (Abre numa nova janela) claim that admissions to psychiatric hospitals, traffic accidents, homicides or suicides increase during a full moon, but dozens of studies invalidate these claims.[282] (Abre numa nova janela)[283] (Abre numa nova janela)[284] (Abre numa nova janela)[285] (Abre numa nova janela)[286] (Abre numa nova janela)

Notes

^ (Abre numa nova janela) Between 18.29° and 28.58° to Earth's equator (Abre numa nova janela).[1] (Abre numa nova janela)
^ (Abre numa nova janela) There are a number of near-Earth asteroids (Abre numa nova janela), including 3753 Cruithne (Abre numa nova janela), that are co-orbital (Abre numa nova janela) with Earth: their orbits bring them close to Earth for periods of time but then alter in the long term (Morais et al, 2002). These are quasi-satellites (Abre numa nova janela) – they are not moons as they do not orbit Earth. For more information, see Other moons of Earth (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) The maximum value is given based on scaling of the brightness from the value of −12.74 given for an equator to Moon-centre distance of 378 000 km in the NASA factsheet reference to the minimum Earth–Moon distance given there, after the latter is corrected for Earth's equatorial radius of 6 378 km, giving 350 600 km. The minimum value (for a distant new moon (Abre numa nova janela)) is based on a similar scaling using the maximum Earth–Moon distance of 407 000 km (given in the factsheet) and by calculating the brightness of the earthshine (Abre numa nova janela) onto such a new moon. The brightness of the earthshine is [ Earth albedo (Abre numa nova janela) × (Earth radius (Abre numa nova janela) / Radius of Moon's orbit (Abre numa nova janela))2 ] relative to the direct solar illumination that occurs for a full moon. (Earth albedo = 0.367; Earth radius = (polar radius × equatorial radius)½ = 6 367 km.)
^ (Abre numa nova janela) The range of angular size values given are based on simple scaling of the following values given in the fact sheet reference: at an Earth-equator to Moon-centre distance of 378 000 km, the angular size (Abre numa nova janela) is 1896 arcseconds (Abre numa nova janela). The same fact sheet gives extreme Earth–Moon distances of 407 000 km and 357 000 km. For the maximum angular size, the minimum distance has to be corrected for Earth's equatorial radius of 6 378 km, giving 350 600 km.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Lucey et al. (2006) give 107 particles cm−3 by day and 105 particles cm−3by night. Along with equatorial surface temperatures of 390 K (Abre numa nova janela) by day and 100 K by night, the ideal gas law (Abre numa nova janela) yields the pressures given in the infobox (rounded to the nearest order of magnitude (Abre numa nova janela)): 10−7 Pa (Abre numa nova janela) by day and 10−10 Pa by night.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) This age is calculated from isotope dating of lunar zircons.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) More accurately, the Moon's mean sidereal period (fixed star to fixed star) is 27.321661 days (27 d 07 h 43 min 11.5 s), and its mean tropical orbital period (from equinox to equinox) is 27.321582 days (27 d 07 h 43 min 04.7 s) (Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris, 1961, at p.107).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) More accurately, the Moon's mean synodic period (between mean solar conjunctions) is 29.530589 days (29 d 12 h 44 min 02.9 s) (Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris, 1961, at p.107).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) There is no strong correlation between the sizes of planets and the sizes of their satellites. Larger planets tend to have more satellites, both large and small, than smaller planets.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) With 27% the diameter and 60% the density of Earth, the Moon has 1.23% of the mass of Earth. The moon Charon (Abre numa nova janela) is larger relative to its primary Pluto (Abre numa nova janela), but Pluto is now considered to be a dwarf planet (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) The Sun's apparent magnitude (Abre numa nova janela) is −26.7, while the full moon's apparent magnitude is −12.7.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) See graph in Sun#Life phases (Abre numa nova janela). At present, the diameter of the Sun is increasing at a rate of about five percent per billion years. This is very similar to the rate at which the apparent angular diameter of the Moon is decreasing as it recedes from Earth.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) On average, the Moon covers an area of 0.21078 square degrees on the night sky.

References

Citations

^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) c (Abre numa nova janela) d (Abre numa nova janela) e (Abre numa nova janela) f (Abre numa nova janela) g (Abre numa nova janela) h (Abre numa nova janela) i (Abre numa nova janela) j (Abre numa nova janela) k (Abre numa nova janela) l (Abre numa nova janela) Wieczorek, Mark A.; et al. (2006). "The constitution and structure of the lunar interior" (Abre numa nova janela). Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry (Abre numa nova janela). 60 (1): 221–364. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2006RvMG...60..221W (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.2138/rmg.2006.60.3 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 130734866 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) Lang, Kenneth R. (2011). The Cambridge Guide to the Solar System' (Abre numa nova janela) (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 9781139494175 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 1 January 2016.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Morais, M.H.M.; Morbidelli, A. (2002). "The Population of Near-Earth Asteroids in Coorbital Motion with the Earth" (Abre numa nova janela). Icarus (Abre numa nova janela). 160 (1): 1–9. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2002Icar..160....1M (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1006/icar.2002.6937 (Abre numa nova janela). hdl (Abre numa nova janela):10316/4391 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 55214551 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) c (Abre numa nova janela) d (Abre numa nova janela) e (Abre numa nova janela) f (Abre numa nova janela) g (Abre numa nova janela) h (Abre numa nova janela) i (Abre numa nova janela) j (Abre numa nova janela) Williams, Dr. David R. (2 February 2006). "Moon Fact Sheet" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA/National Space Science Data Center (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 23 March 2010. Retrieved 31 December 2008.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Smith, David E.; Zuber, Maria T.; Neumann, Gregory A.; Lemoine, Frank G. (1 January 1997). "Topography of the Moon from the Clementine lidar" (Abre numa nova janela). Journal of Geophysical Research (Abre numa nova janela). 102 (E1): 1601. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1997JGR...102.1591S (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1029/96JE02940 (Abre numa nova janela). hdl (Abre numa nova janela):2060/19980018849 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 17475023 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Terry, Paul (2013). Top 10 of Everything. Octopus Publishing Group Ltd. p. 226. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-600-62887-3 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Williams, James G.; Newhall, XX; Dickey, Jean O. (1996). "Lunar moments, tides, orientation, and coordinate frames". Planetary and Space Science (Abre numa nova janela). 44 (10): 1077–1080. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1996P&SS...44.1077W (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1016/0032-0633(95)00154-9 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Makemson, Maud W. (1971). "Determination of selenographic positions". The Moon. 2 (3): 293–308. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1971Moon....2..293M (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1007/BF00561882 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 119603394 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) Archinal, Brent A.; A'Hearn, Michael F.; Bowell, Edward G.; Conrad, Albert R.; Consolmagno, Guy J.; Courtin, Régis; et al. (2010). "Report of the IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements: 2009" (Abre numa nova janela)(PDF). Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 109(2): 101–135. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2011CeMDA.109..101A (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1007/s10569-010-9320-4 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 189842666 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 24 September 2018. also available "via usgs.gov" (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF) from the original on 27 April 2019. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Matthews, Grant (2008). "Celestial body irradiance determination from an underfilled satellite radiometer: application to albedo and thermal emission measurements of the Moon using CERES". Applied Optics (Abre numa nova janela). 47 (27): 4981–4993. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2008ApOpt..47.4981M (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1364/AO.47.004981 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 18806861 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) A.R. Vasavada; D.A. Paige & S.E. Wood (1999). "Near-Surface Temperatures on Mercury and the Moon and the Stability of Polar Ice Deposits" (Abre numa nova janela). Icarus (Abre numa nova janela). 141 (2): 179–193. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1999Icar..141..179V (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1006/icar.1999.6175 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 37706412 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) c (Abre numa nova janela) Lucey, Paul; Korotev, Randy L.; et al. (2006). "Understanding the lunar surface and space-Moon interactions". Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry (Abre numa nova janela). 60(1): 83–219. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2006RvMG...60...83L (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.2138/rmg.2006.60.2 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Jonti Horner (18 July 2019). "How big is the Moon?" (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "By the Numbers | Earth's Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA Solar System Exploration. NASA (Abre numa nova janela). Retrieved 15 December 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Stern, David (30 March 2014). "Libration of the Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 22 May 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Naming Astronomical Objects: Spelling of Names" (Abre numa nova janela). International Astronomical Union (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela)on 16 December 2008. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature: Planetary Nomenclature FAQ" (Abre numa nova janela). USGS Astrogeology Research Program (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Orel, Vladimir (2003). A Handbook of Germanic Etymology (Abre numa nova janela). Brill. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Fernando López-Menchero, Late Proto-Indo-European Etymological Lexicon (Abre numa nova janela) Archived (Abre numa nova janela) 22 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine (Abre numa nova janela)
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Barnhart, Robert K. (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology. Harper Collins (Abre numa nova janela). p. 487. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-06-270084-1 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) E.g. James A. Hall III (2016) Moons of the Solar System, Springer International
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Luna" (Abre numa nova janela). Oxford English Dictionary (Abre numa nova janela) (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership (Abre numa nova janela) required.)
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Cynthia" (Abre numa nova janela). Oxford English Dictionary (Abre numa nova janela) (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership (Abre numa nova janela) required.)
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "selenian" (Abre numa nova janela). Merriam-Webster Dictionary (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "selenian" (Abre numa nova janela). Oxford English Dictionary (Abre numa nova janela) (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership (Abre numa nova janela) required.)
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "selenic" (Abre numa nova janela). Oxford English Dictionary (Abre numa nova janela) (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership (Abre numa nova janela) required.)
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "selenic" (Abre numa nova janela). Merriam-Webster Dictionary (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Oxford English Dictionary: lunar, a. and n." (Abre numa nova janela) Oxford English Dictionary: Second Edition 1989. Oxford University Press (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 23 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) σελήνη (Abre numa nova janela). Liddell, Henry George (Abre numa nova janela); Scott, Robert (Abre numa nova janela); A Greek–English Lexicon (Abre numa nova janela) at the Perseus Project (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Pannen, Imke (2010). When the Bad Bleeds: Mantic Elements in English Renaissance Revenge Tragedy (Abre numa nova janela). V&R unipress GmbH. pp. 96–. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-3-89971-640-5 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 4 September 2016.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "The Moon is older than scientists thought" (Abre numa nova janela). Universe Today. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 3 August 2019. Retrieved 3 August 2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Barboni, M.; Boehnke, P.; Keller, C.B.; Kohl, I.E.; Schoene, B.; Young, E.D.; McKeegan, K.D. (2017). "Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago" (Abre numa nova janela). Science Advances. 3 (1): e1602365. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2017SciA....3E2365B (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/sciadv.1602365 (Abre numa nova janela). PMC (Abre numa nova janela) 5226643 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 28097222 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Binder, A.B. (1974). "On the origin of the Moon by rotational fission". The Moon (Abre numa nova janela). 11 (2): 53–76. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1974Moon...11...53B (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1007/BF01877794 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 122622374 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) c (Abre numa nova janela) Stroud, Rick (2009). The Book of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela). Walken and Company. pp. 24–27 (Abre numa nova janela). ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-8027-1734-4 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Mitler, H.E. (1975). "Formation of an iron-poor moon by partial capture, or: Yet another exotic theory of lunar origin". Icarus (Abre numa nova janela). 24 (2): 256–268. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1975Icar...24..256M (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1016/0019-1035(75)90102-5 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Stevenson, D.J. (1987). "Origin of the moon–The collision hypothesis" (Abre numa nova janela). Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences (Abre numa nova janela). 15 (1): 271–315. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1987AREPS..15..271S (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1146/annurev.ea.15.050187.001415 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 53516498 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Taylor, G. Jeffrey (31 December 1998). "Origin of the Earth and Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). Planetary Science Research Discoveries. Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology. Archived (Abre numa nova janela)from the original on 10 June 2010. Retrieved 7 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Asteroids Bear Scars of Moon's Violent Formation" (Abre numa nova janela). 16 April 2015. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 8 October 2016.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Dana Mackenzie (21 July 2003). The Big Splat, or How Our Moon Came to Be (Abre numa nova janela). John Wiley & Sons (Abre numa nova janela). pp. 166 (Abre numa nova janela)–168. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-471-48073-0 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Canup, R.; Asphaug, E. (2001). "Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of Earth's formation". Nature (Abre numa nova janela). 412(6848): 708–712. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2001Natur.412..708C (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1038/35089010 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 11507633 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 4413525 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Earth-Asteroid Collision Formed Moon Later Than Thought" (Abre numa nova janela). National Geographic (Abre numa nova janela). 28 October 2010. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 18 April 2009. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Kleine, Thorsten (2008). "2008 Pellas-Ryder Award for Mathieu Touboul" (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF). Meteoritics and Planetary Science. 43 (S7): A11–A12. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2008M&PS...43...11K (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1111/j.1945-5100.2008.tb00709.x (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF) on 27 July 2018. Retrieved 8 April 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Touboul, M.; Kleine, T.; Bourdon, B.; Palme, H.; Wieler, R. (2007). "Late formation and prolonged differentiation of the Moon inferred from W isotopes in lunar metals". Nature (Abre numa nova janela). 450(7173): 1206–1209. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2007Natur.450.1206T (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1038/nature06428 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 18097403 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 4416259 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Flying Oceans of Magma Help Demystify the Moon's Creation" (Abre numa nova janela). National Geographic (Abre numa nova janela). 8 April 2015. Archived (Abre numa nova janela)from the original on 9 April 2015.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Pahlevan, Kaveh; Stevenson, David J. (2007). "Equilibration in the aftermath of the lunar-forming giant impact". Earth and Planetary Science Letters (Abre numa nova janela). 262 (3–4): 438–449. arXiv (Abre numa nova janela):1012.5323 (Abre numa nova janela). Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2007E&PSL.262..438P (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1016/j.epsl.2007.07.055 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 53064179 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Nield, Ted (2009). "Moonwalk (summary of meeting at Meteoritical Society's 72nd Annual Meeting, Nancy, France)" (Abre numa nova janela). Geoscientist (Abre numa nova janela). Vol. 19. p. 8. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 27 September 2012.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) Warren, P.H. (1985). "The magma ocean concept and lunar evolution". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences (Abre numa nova janela). 13 (1): 201–240. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1985AREPS..13..201W (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1146/annurev.ea.13.050185.001221 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Tonks, W. Brian; Melosh, H. Jay (1993). "Magma ocean formation due to giant impacts". Journal of Geophysical Research (Abre numa nova janela). 98 (E3): 5319–5333. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1993JGR....98.5319T (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1029/92JE02726 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Daniel Clery (11 October 2013). "Impact Theory Gets Whacked". Science (Abre numa nova janela). 342 (6155): 183–185. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2013Sci...342..183C (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/science.342.6155.183 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 24115419 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Wiechert, U.; et al. (October 2001). "Oxygen Isotopes and the Moon-Forming Giant Impact" (Abre numa nova janela). Science (Abre numa nova janela). 294 (12): 345–348. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2001Sci...294..345W (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/science.1063037 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 11598294 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 29835446 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 20 April 2009. Retrieved 5 July 2009.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Pahlevan, Kaveh; Stevenson, David (October 2007). "Equilibration in the Aftermath of the Lunar-forming Giant Impact". Earth and Planetary Science Letters (Abre numa nova janela). 262 (3–4): 438–449. arXiv (Abre numa nova janela):1012.5323 (Abre numa nova janela). Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2007E&PSL.262..438P (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1016/j.epsl.2007.07.055 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 53064179 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Titanium Paternity Test Says Earth is the Moon's Only Parent (University of Chicago)" (Abre numa nova janela). Astrobio.net. 5 April 2012. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 8 August 2012. Retrieved 3 October 2013.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Garrick-Bethell; et al. (2014). "The tidal-rotational shape of the Moon and evidence for polar wander" (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF). Nature. 512 (7513): 181–184. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2014Natur.512..181G (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1038/nature13639 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 25079322 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 4452886 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Taylor, Stuart R. (1975). Lunar Science: a Post-Apollo View. Oxford: Pergamon Press (Abre numa nova janela). p. 64. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-08-018274-2 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Brown, D.; Anderson, J. (6 January 2011). "NASA Research Team Reveals Moon Has Earth-Like Core" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. NASA. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 11 January 2012.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Weber, R.C.; Lin, P.-Y.; Garnero, E.J.; Williams, Q.; Lognonne, P. (21 January 2011). "Seismic Detection of the Lunar Core" (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF). Science. 331 (6015): 309–312. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2011Sci...331..309W (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/science.1199375 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 21212323 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 206530647 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF) on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 10 April 2017.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Nemchin, A.; Timms, N.; Pidgeon, R.; Geisler, T.; Reddy, S.; Meyer, C. (2009). "Timing of crystallization of the lunar magma ocean constrained by the oldest zircon". Nature Geoscience (Abre numa nova janela). 2 (2): 133–136. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2009NatGe...2..133N (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1038/ngeo417 (Abre numa nova janela). hdl (Abre numa nova janela):20.500.11937/44375 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) Shearer, Charles K.; et al. (2006). "Thermal and magmatic evolution of the Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry (Abre numa nova janela). 60 (1): 365–518. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2006RvMG...60..365S (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.2138/rmg.2006.60.4 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 129184748 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Schubert, J. (2004). "Interior composition, structure, and dynamics of the Galilean satellites.". In F. Bagenal; et al. (eds.). Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites, and Magnetosphere. Cambridge University Press (Abre numa nova janela). pp. 281–306. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-521-81808-7 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Williams, J.G.; Turyshev, S.G.; Boggs, D.H.; Ratcliff, J.T. (2006). "Lunar laser ranging science: Gravitational physics and lunar interior and geodesy". Advances in Space Research (Abre numa nova janela). 37 (1): 67–71. arXiv (Abre numa nova janela):gr-qc/0412049 (Abre numa nova janela). Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2006AdSpR..37...67W (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1016/j.asr.2005.05.013 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 14801321 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Spudis, Paul D.; Cook, A.; Robinson, M.; Bussey, B.; Fessler, B. (January 1998). "Topography of the South Polar Region from Clementine Stereo Imaging". Workshop on New Views of the Moon: Integrated Remotely Sensed, Geophysical, and Sample Datasets: 69. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1998nvmi.conf...69S (Abre numa nova janela).
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) c (Abre numa nova janela) Spudis, Paul D.; Reisse, Robert A.; Gillis, Jeffrey J. (1994). "Ancient Multiring Basins on the Moon Revealed by Clementine Laser Altimetry". Science (Abre numa nova janela). 266 (5192): 1848–1851. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1994Sci...266.1848S (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/science.266.5192.1848 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 17737079 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 41861312 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Pieters, C.M.; Tompkins, S.; Head, J.W.; Hess, P.C. (1997). "Mineralogy of the Mafic Anomaly in the South Pole‐Aitken Basin: Implications for excavation of the lunar mantle". Geophysical Research Letters (Abre numa nova janela). 24 (15): 1903–1906. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1997GeoRL..24.1903P (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1029/97GL01718 (Abre numa nova janela). hdl (Abre numa nova janela):2060/19980018038 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Taylor, G.J. (17 July 1998). "The Biggest Hole in the Solar System" (Abre numa nova janela). Planetary Science Research Discoveries: 20. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1998psrd.reptE..20T (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 20 August 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Schultz, P.H. (March 1997). "Forming the south-pole Aitken basin – The extreme games". Conference Paper, 28th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. 28: 1259. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1997LPI....28.1259S (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "NASA's LRO Reveals 'Incredible Shrinking Moon'" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. 19 August 2010. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 21 August 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Watters, Thomas R.; Weber, Renee C.; Collins, Geoffrey C.; Howley, Ian J.; Schmerr, Nicholas C.; Johnson, Catherine L. (June 2019). "Shallow seismic activity and young thrust faults on the Moon". Nature Geoscience (published 13 May 2019). 12 (6): 411–417. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2019NatGe..12..411W (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1038/s41561-019-0362-2 (Abre numa nova janela). ISSN (Abre numa nova janela) 1752-0894 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 182137223 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Wlasuk, Peter (2000). Observing the Moon (Abre numa nova janela). Springer (Abre numa nova janela). p. 19. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-1-85233-193-1 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Norman, M. (21 April 2004). "The Oldest Moon Rocks" (Abre numa nova janela). Planetary Science Research Discoveries. Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 18 April 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Head, L.W.J.W. (2003). "Lunar Gruithuisen and Mairan domes: Rheology and mode of emplacement" (Abre numa nova janela). Journal of Geophysical Research (Abre numa nova janela). 108 (E2): 5012. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2003JGRE..108.5012W (Abre numa nova janela). CiteSeerX (Abre numa nova janela) 10.1.1.654.9619 (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1029/2002JE001909 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 12 March 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) c (Abre numa nova janela) d (Abre numa nova janela) e (Abre numa nova janela) f (Abre numa nova janela) g (Abre numa nova janela) h (Abre numa nova janela) Spudis, P.D. (2004). "Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). World Book Online Reference Center, NASA. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela)on 3 July 2013. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Gillis, J.J.; Spudis, P.D. (1996). "The Composition and Geologic Setting of Lunar Far Side Maria". Lunar and Planetary Science (Abre numa nova janela). 27: 413. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1996LPI....27..413G (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Lawrence, D.J., et al. (11 August 1998). "Global Elemental Maps of the Moon: The Lunar Prospector Gamma-Ray Spectrometer" (Abre numa nova janela). Science (Abre numa nova janela). 281 (5382): 1484–1489. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1998Sci...281.1484L (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/science.281.5382.1484 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 9727970 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 16 May 2009. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Taylor, G.J. (31 August 2000). "A New Moon for the Twenty-First Century" (Abre numa nova janela). Planetary Science Research Discoveries: 41. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2000psrd.reptE..41T (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 1 March 2012. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) Papike, J.; Ryder, G.; Shearer, C. (1998). "Lunar Samples". Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry (Abre numa nova janela). 36: 5.1–5.234.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) Hiesinger, H.; Head, J.W.; Wolf, U.; Jaumanm, R.; Neukum, G. (2003). "Ages and stratigraphy of mare basalts in Oceanus Procellarum, Mare Numbium, Mare Cognitum, and Mare Insularum" (Abre numa nova janela). Journal of Geophysical Research (Abre numa nova janela). 108(E7): 1029. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2003JGRE..108.5065H (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1029/2002JE001985 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 9570915 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela)from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 2 December2019.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) Phil Berardelli (9 November 2006). "Long Live the Moon!" (Abre numa nova janela). Science (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 18 October 2014. Retrieved 14 October 2014.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Jason Major (14 October 2014). "Volcanoes Erupted 'Recently' on the Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). Discovery News (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 16 October 2014.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "NASA Mission Finds Widespread Evidence of Young Lunar Volcanism" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. 12 October 2014. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 3 January 2015.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Eric Hand (12 October 2014). "Recent volcanic eruptions on the moon" (Abre numa nova janela). Science (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 14 October 2014.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Braden, S.E.; Stopar, J.D.; Robinson, M.S.; Lawrence, S.J.; van der Bogert, C.H.; Hiesinger, H. (2014). "Evidence for basaltic volcanism on the Moon within the past 100 million years". Nature Geoscience (Abre numa nova janela). 7 (11): 787–791. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2014NatGe...7..787B (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1038/ngeo2252 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Srivastava, N.; Gupta, R.P. (2013). "Young viscous flows in the Lowell crater of Orientale basin, Moon: Impact melts or volcanic eruptions?". Planetary and Space Science (Abre numa nova janela). 87: 37–45. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2013P&SS...87...37S (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1016/j.pss.2013.09.001 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Gupta, R.P.; Srivastava, N.; Tiwari, R.K. (2014). "Evidences of relatively new volcanic flows on the Moon". Current Science (Abre numa nova janela). 107 (3): 454–460.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Whitten, J.; et al. (2011). "Lunar mare deposits associated with the Orientale impact basin: New insights into mineralogy, history, mode of emplacement, and relation to Orientale Basin evolution from Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) data from Chandrayaan-1" (Abre numa nova janela). Journal of Geophysical Research (Abre numa nova janela). 116: E00G09. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2011JGRE..116.0G09W (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1029/2010JE003736 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 7234547 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela)from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 2 December2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Cho, Y.; et al. (2012). "Young mare volcanism in the Orientale region contemporary with the Procellarum KREEP Terrane (PKT) volcanism peak period 2 b.y. ago". Geophysical Research Letters (Abre numa nova janela). 39 (11): L11203. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2012GeoRL..3911203C (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1029/2012GL051838 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Munsell, K. (4 December 2006). "Majestic Mountains" (Abre numa nova janela). Solar System Exploration. NASA. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 17 September 2008. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Richard Lovett (2011). "Early Earth may have had two moons : Nature News" (Abre numa nova janela). Nature. doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1038/news.2011.456 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 3 November 2012. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Was our two-faced moon in a small collision?" (Abre numa nova janela). Theconversation.edu.au. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 30 January 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Melosh, H. J. (1989). Impact cratering: A geologic process. Oxford University Press (Abre numa nova janela). ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-19-504284-9 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Moon Facts" (Abre numa nova janela). SMART-1. European Space Agency (Abre numa nova janela). 2010. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 17 March 2012. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) Wilhelms, Don (1987). "Relative Ages" (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF). Geologic History of the Moon. U.S. Geological Survey (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF) on 11 June 2010. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Hartmann, William K.; Quantin, Cathy; Mangold, Nicolas (2007). "Possible long-term decline in impact rates: 2. Lunar impact-melt data regarding impact history". Icarus (Abre numa nova janela). 186 (1): 11–23. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2007Icar..186...11H (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1016/j.icarus.2006.09.009 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "The Smell of Moondust" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. 30 January 2006. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 8 March 2010. Retrieved 15 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Heiken, G. (1991). Vaniman, D.; French, B. (eds.). Lunar Sourcebook, a user's guide to the Moon (Abre numa nova janela). New York: Cambridge University Press (Abre numa nova janela). p. 736 (Abre numa nova janela). ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-521-33444-0 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Rasmussen, K.L.; Warren, P.H. (1985). "Megaregolith thickness, heat flow, and the bulk composition of the Moon". Nature (Abre numa nova janela). 313 (5998): 121–124. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1985Natur.313..121R (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1038/313121a0 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 4245137 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Boyle, Rebecca. "The moon has hundreds more craters than we thought" (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 13 October 2016.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Speyerer, Emerson J.; Povilaitis, Reinhold Z.; Robinson, Mark S.; Thomas, Peter C.; Wagner, Robert V. (13 October 2016). "Quantifying crater production and regolith overturn on the Moon with temporal imaging". Nature (Abre numa nova janela). 538 (7624): 215–218. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2016Natur.538..215S (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1038/nature19829 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 27734864 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 4443574 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Margot, J.L.; Campbell, D.B.; Jurgens, R.F.; Slade, M.A. (4 June 1999). "Topography of the Lunar Poles from Radar Interferometry: A Survey of Cold Trap Locations" (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF). Science (Abre numa nova janela). 284 (5420): 1658–1660. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1999Sci...284.1658M (Abre numa nova janela). CiteSeerX (Abre numa nova janela) 10.1.1.485.312 (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/science.284.5420.1658 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 10356393 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF) from the original on 11 August 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Ward, William R. (1 August 1975). "Past Orientation of the Lunar Spin Axis". Science (Abre numa nova janela). 189 (4200): 377–379. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1975Sci...189..377W (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/science.189.4200.377 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 17840827 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 21185695 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) Martel, L.M.V. (4 June 2003). "The Moon's Dark, Icy Poles" (Abre numa nova janela). Planetary Science Research Discoveries: 73. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2003psrd.reptE..73M (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela)on 1 March 2012. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Seedhouse, Erik (2009). Lunar Outpost: The Challenges of Establishing a Human Settlement on the Moon (Abre numa nova janela). Springer-Praxis Books in Space Exploration. Germany: Springer Praxis (Abre numa nova janela). p. 136. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-387-09746-6 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Coulter, Dauna (18 March 2010). "The Multiplying Mystery of Moonwater" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 13 December 2012. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Spudis, P. (6 November 2006). "Ice on the Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). The Space Review (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 22 February 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Feldman, W.C.; S. Maurice; A.B. Binder; B.L. Barraclough; R.C. Elphic; D.J. Lawrence (1998). "Fluxes of Fast and Epithermal Neutrons from Lunar Prospector: Evidence for Water Ice at the Lunar Poles" (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF). Science (Abre numa nova janela). 281 (5382): 1496–1500. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1998Sci...281.1496F (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/science.281.5382.1496 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 9727973 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 9005608 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF) from the original on 23 February 2019. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Saal, Alberto E.; Hauri, Erik H.; Cascio, Mauro L.; van Orman, James A.; Rutherford, Malcolm C.; Cooper, Reid F. (2008). "Volatile content of lunar volcanic glasses and the presence of water in the Moon's interior". Nature (Abre numa nova janela). 454 (7201): 192–195. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2008Natur.454..192S (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1038/nature07047 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 18615079 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 4394004 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Pieters, C.M.; Goswami, J.N.; Clark, R.N.; Annadurai, M.; Boardman, J.; Buratti, B.; Combe, J.-P.; Dyar, M.D.; Green, R.; Head, J.W.; Hibbitts, C.; Hicks, M.; Isaacson, P.; Klima, R.; Kramer, G.; Kumar, S.; Livo, E.; Lundeen, S.; Malaret, E.; McCord, T.; Mustard, J.; Nettles, J.; Petro, N.; Runyon, C.; Staid, M.; Sunshine, J.; Taylor, L.A.; Tompkins, S.; Varanasi, P. (2009). "Character and Spatial Distribution of OH/H2O on the Surface of the Moon Seen by M3 on Chandrayaan-1" (Abre numa nova janela). Science (Abre numa nova janela). 326 (5952): 568–572. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2009Sci...326..568P (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/science.1178658 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 19779151 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 447133 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Li, Shuai; Lucey, Paul G.; Milliken, Ralph E.; Hayne, Paul O.; Fisher, Elizabeth; Williams, Jean-Pierre; Hurley, Dana M.; Elphic, Richard C. (August 2018). "Direct evidence of surface exposed water ice in the lunar polar regions" (Abre numa nova janela). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (36): 8907–8912. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2018PNAS..115.8907L (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1073/pnas.1802345115 (Abre numa nova janela). PMC (Abre numa nova janela) 6130389 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 30126996 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Lakdawalla, Emily (13 November 2009). "LCROSS Lunar Impactor Mission: "Yes, We Found Water!"" (Abre numa nova janela). The Planetary Society (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 22 January 2010. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Colaprete, A.; Ennico, K.; Wooden, D.; Shirley, M.; Heldmann, J.; Marshall, W.; Sollitt, L.; Asphaug, E.; Korycansky, D.; Schultz, P.; Hermalyn, B.; Galal, K.; Bart, G.D.; Goldstein, D.; Summy, D. (1–5 March 2010). "Water and More: An Overview of LCROSS Impact Results". 41st Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. 41 (1533): 2335. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2010LPI....41.2335C (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Colaprete, Anthony; Schultz, Peter; Heldmann, Jennifer; Wooden, Diane; Shirley, Mark; Ennico, Kimberly; Hermalyn, Brendan; Marshall, William; Ricco, Antonio; Elphic, Richard C.; Goldstein, David; Summy, Dustin; Bart, Gwendolyn D.; Asphaug, Erik; Korycansky, Don; Landis, David; Sollitt, Luke (22 October 2010). "Detection of Water in the LCROSS Ejecta Plume" (Abre numa nova janela). Science (Abre numa nova janela). 330 (6003): 463–468. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2010Sci...330..463C (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/science.1186986 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 20966242 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 206525375 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Hauri, Erik; Thomas Weinreich; Albert E. Saal; Malcolm C. Rutherford; James A. Van Orman (26 May 2011). "High Pre-Eruptive Water Contents Preserved in Lunar Melt Inclusions" (Abre numa nova janela). Science Express (Abre numa nova janela). 10 (1126): 213–215. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2011Sci...333..213H (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/science.1204626 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 21617039 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 44437587 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) Rincon, Paul (21 August 2018). "Water ice 'detected on Moon's surface'" (Abre numa nova janela). BBC News. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 21 August 2018. Retrieved 21 August 2018.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) David, Leonard. "Beyond the Shadow of a Doubt, Water Ice Exists on the Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). Scientific American. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 21 August 2018. Retrieved 21 August 2018.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) "Water Ice Confirmed on the Surface of the Moon for the 1st Time!" (Abre numa nova janela). Space.com. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 21 August 2018. Retrieved 21 August 2018.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Honniball, C.I.; et al. (26 October 2020). "Molecular water detected on the sunlit Moon by SOFIA" (Abre numa nova janela). Nature Astronomy (Abre numa nova janela). 5 (2): 121–127. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2020NatAs.tmp..222H (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1038/s41550-020-01222-x (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 27 October 2020. Retrieved 26 October 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Hayne, P.O.; et al. (26 October 2020). "Micro cold traps on the Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). Nature Astronomy (Abre numa nova janela). 5 (2): 169–175. arXiv (Abre numa nova janela):2005.05369 (Abre numa nova janela). Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2020NatAs.tmp..221H (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1038/s41550-020-1198-9 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 218595642 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 27 October 2020. Retrieved 26 October 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Guarino, Ben; Achenbach, Joel (26 October 2020). "Pair of studies confirm there is water on the moon - New research confirms what scientists had theorized for years — the moon is wet" (Abre numa nova janela). The Washington Post (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 26 October 2020. Retrieved 26 October 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Chang, Kenneth (26 October 2020). "There's Water and Ice on the Moon, and in More Places Than NASA Once Thought - Future astronauts seeking water on the moon may not need to go into the most treacherous craters in its polar regions to find it" (Abre numa nova janela). The New York Times (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 26 October 2020. Retrieved 26 October 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Muller, P.; Sjogren, W. (1968). "Mascons: lunar mass concentrations". Science (Abre numa nova janela). 161 (3842): 680–684. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1968Sci...161..680M (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/science.161.3842.680 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 17801458 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 40110502 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Richard A. Kerr (12 April 2013). "The Mystery of Our Moon's Gravitational Bumps Solved?". Science (Abre numa nova janela). 340 (6129): 138–139. doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/science.340.6129.138-a (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 23580504 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Konopliv, A.; Asmar, S.; Carranza, E.; Sjogren, W.; Yuan, D. (2001). "Recent gravity models as a result of the Lunar Prospector mission" (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF). Icarus (Abre numa nova janela). 50 (1): 1–18. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2001Icar..150....1K (Abre numa nova janela). CiteSeerX (Abre numa nova janela) 10.1.1.18.1930 (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1006/icar.2000.6573 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela)(PDF) on 13 November 2004.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) c (Abre numa nova janela) Mighani, S.; Wang, H.; Shuster, D.L.; Borlina, C.S.; Nichols, C.I.O.; Weiss, B.P. (2020). "The end of the lunar dynamo" (Abre numa nova janela). Science Advances. 6 (1): eaax0883. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2020SciA....6..883M (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/sciadv.aax0883 (Abre numa nova janela). PMC (Abre numa nova janela) 6938704 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 31911941 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Garrick-Bethell, Ian; Weiss, iBenjamin P.; Shuster, David L.; Buz, Jennifer (2009). "Early Lunar Magnetism" (Abre numa nova janela). Science (Abre numa nova janela). 323 (5912): 356–359. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2009Sci...323..356G (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/science.1166804 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 19150839 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 23227936 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Magnetometer / Electron Reflectometer Results" (Abre numa nova janela). Lunar Prospector (Abre numa nova janela) (NASA). 2001. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Hood, L.L.; Huang, Z. (1991). "Formation of magnetic anomalies antipodal to lunar impact basins: Two-dimensional model calculations". Journal of Geophysical Research (Abre numa nova janela). 96(B6): 9837–9846. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1991JGR....96.9837H (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1029/91JB00308 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Moon Storms" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. 27 September 2013. Archived (Abre numa nova janela)from the original on 12 September 2013. Retrieved 3 October2013.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Culler, Jessica (16 June 2015). "LADEE - Lunar Atmosphere Dust and Environment Explorer" (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela)from the original on 8 April 2015.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Globus, Ruth (1977). "Chapter 5, Appendix J: Impact Upon Lunar Atmosphere" (Abre numa nova janela). In Richard D. Johnson & Charles Holbrow (ed.). Space Settlements: A Design Study. NASA. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 31 May 2010. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Crotts, Arlin P.S. (2008). "Lunar Outgassing, Transient Phenomena and The Return to The Moon, I: Existing Data" (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal (Abre numa nova janela). 687 (1): 692–705. arXiv (Abre numa nova janela):0706.3949 (Abre numa nova janela). Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2008ApJ...687..692C (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1086/591634 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 16821394 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF) on 20 February 2009. Retrieved 29 September 2009.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Steigerwald, William (17 August 2015). "NASA's LADEE Spacecraft Finds Neon in Lunar Atmosphere" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 August 2015. Retrieved 18 August 2015.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) c (Abre numa nova janela) Stern, S.A. (1999). "The Lunar atmosphere: History, status, current problems, and context". Reviews of Geophysics (Abre numa nova janela). 37 (4): 453–491. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1999RvGeo..37..453S (Abre numa nova janela). CiteSeerX (Abre numa nova janela) 10.1.1.21.9994 (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1029/1999RG900005 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Lawson, S.; Feldman, W.; Lawrence, D.; Moore, K.; Elphic, R.; Belian, R. (2005). "Recent outgassing from the lunar surface: the Lunar Prospector alpha particle spectrometer" (Abre numa nova janela). Journal of Geophysical Research (Abre numa nova janela). 110 (E9): 1029. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2005JGRE..11009009L (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1029/2005JE002433 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) R. Sridharan; S.M. Ahmed; Tirtha Pratim Dasa; P. Sreelathaa; P. Pradeepkumara; Neha Naika; Gogulapati Supriya (2010). "'Direct' evidence for water (H2O) in the sunlit lunar ambience from CHACE on MIP of Chandrayaan I". Planetary and Space Science (Abre numa nova janela). 58 (6): 947–950. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2010P&SS...58..947S (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1016/j.pss.2010.02.013 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Drake, Nadia; 17, National Geographic PUBLISHED June (17 June 2015). "Lopsided Cloud of Dust Discovered Around the Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). National Geographic News. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 June 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Horányi, M.; Szalay, J.R.; Kempf, S.; Schmidt, J.; Grün, E.; Srama, R.; Sternovsky, Z. (18 June 2015). "A permanent, asymmetric dust cloud around the Moon". Nature (Abre numa nova janela). 522 (7556): 324–326. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2015Natur.522..324H (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1038/nature14479 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 26085272 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 4453018 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "NASA: The Moon Once Had an Atmosphere That Faded Away" (Abre numa nova janela). Time. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 14 October 2017. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Hamilton, Calvin J.; Hamilton, Rosanna L., The Moon, Views of the Solar System (Abre numa nova janela) Archived (Abre numa nova janela) 4 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine (Abre numa nova janela), 1995–2011.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) Amos, Jonathan (16 December 2009). "'Coldest place' found on the Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). BBC News. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 11 August 2017. Retrieved 20 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Diviner News" (Abre numa nova janela). UCLA (Abre numa nova janela). 17 September 2009. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 7 March 2010. Retrieved 17 March2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Rocheleau, Jake (21 May 2012). "Temperature on the Moon – Surface Temperature of the Moon – PlanetFacts.org" (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 27 May 2015.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Matt Williams (10 July 2017). "How Long is a Day on the Moon?" (Abre numa nova janela). Retrieved 5 December 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Haigh, I. D.; Eliot, M.; Pattiaratchi, C. (2011). "Global influences of the 18.61 year nodal cycle and 8.85 year cycle of lunar perigee on high tidal levels" (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF). J. Geophys. Res. 116 (C6): C06025. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2011JGRC..116.6025H (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1029/2010JC006645 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF) from the original on 12 December 2019. Retrieved 24 September2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) V V Belet︠s︡kiĭ (2001). Essays on the Motion of Celestial Bodies (Abre numa nova janela). Birkhäuser (Abre numa nova janela). p. 183. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-3-7643-5866-2 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 23 March 2018. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Space Topics: Pluto and Charon" (Abre numa nova janela). The Planetary Society (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 18 February 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Phil Plait (Abre numa nova janela). "Dark Side of the Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). Bad Astronomy (Abre numa nova janela): Misconceptions. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 12 April 2010. Retrieved 15 February 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Alexander, M.E. (1973). "The Weak Friction Approximation and Tidal Evolution in Close Binary Systems". Astrophysics and Space Science (Abre numa nova janela). 23 (2): 459–508. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1973Ap&SS..23..459A (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1007/BF00645172 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 122918899 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Moon used to spin 'on different axis'" (Abre numa nova janela). BBC News. BBC. 23 March 2016. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2016.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Luciuk, Mike. "How Bright is the Moon?" (Abre numa nova janela). Amateur Astronomers. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 12 March 2010. Retrieved 16 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Hershenson, Maurice (1989). The Moon illusion. Routledge (Abre numa nova janela). p. 5. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-8058-0121-7 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Spekkens, K. (18 October 2002). "Is the Moon seen as a crescent (and not a "boat") all over the world?" (Abre numa nova janela). Curious About Astronomy. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 28 September 2015.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Moonlight helps plankton escape predators during Arctic winters" (Abre numa nova janela). New Scientist (Abre numa nova janela). 16 January 2016. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 30 January 2016.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) ""Super Moon" exceptional. Brightest moon in the sky of Normandy, Monday, November 14 - The Siver Times" (Abre numa nova janela). 12 November 2016. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 14 November 2016.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Moongazers Delight – Biggest Supermoon in Decades Looms Large Sunday Night" (Abre numa nova janela). 10 November 2016. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 14 November 2016. Retrieved 5 March2017.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Supermoon November 2016" (Abre numa nova janela). Space.com. 13 November 2016. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 14 November 2016. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Tony Phillips (16 March 2011). "Super Full Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 7 May 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Richard K. De Atley (18 March 2011). "Full moon tonight is as close as it gets" (Abre numa nova janela). The Press-Enterprise (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 22 March 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "'Super moon' to reach closest point for almost 20 years" (Abre numa nova janela). The Guardian. 19 March 2011. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 25 December 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Georgia State University, Dept. of Physics (Astronomy). "Perceived Brightness" (Abre numa nova janela). Brightnes and Night/Day Sensitivity. Georgia State University (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 21 February 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Lutron. "Measured light vs. perceived light" (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF). From IES Lighting Handbook 2000, 27-4. Lutron (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF)from the original on 5 February 2013. Retrieved 25 January2014.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Walker, John (May 1997). "Inconstant Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). Earth and Moon Viewer. Fourth paragraph of "How Bright the Moonlight": Fourmilab (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 14 December 2013. Retrieved 23 January 2014. 14% [...] due to the logarithmic response of the human eye.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Taylor, G.J. (8 November 2006). "Recent Gas Escape from the Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). Planetary Science Research Discoveries: 110. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2006psrd.reptE.110T (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela)on 4 March 2007. Retrieved 4 April 2007.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Schultz, P.H.; Staid, M.I.; Pieters, C.M. (2006). "Lunar activity from recent gas release". Nature (Abre numa nova janela). 444 (7116): 184–186. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2006Natur.444..184S (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1038/nature05303 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 17093445 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 7679109 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "22 Degree Halo: a ring of light 22 degrees from the sun or moon" (Abre numa nova janela). Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 5 April 2010. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) c (Abre numa nova janela) d (Abre numa nova janela) e (Abre numa nova janela) Lambeck, K. (1977). "Tidal Dissipation in the Oceans: Astronomical, Geophysical and Oceanographic Consequences". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A (Abre numa nova janela). 287 (1347): 545–594. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1977RSPTA.287..545L (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1098/rsta.1977.0159 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 122853694 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Le Provost, C.; Bennett, A.F.; Cartwright, D.E. (1995). "Ocean Tides for and from TOPEX/POSEIDON". Science (Abre numa nova janela). 267 (5198): 639–642. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1995Sci...267..639L (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/science.267.5198.639 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 17745840 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 13584636 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) c (Abre numa nova janela) d (Abre numa nova janela) Touma, Jihad; Wisdom, Jack (1994). "Evolution of the Earth-Moon system". The Astronomical Journal (Abre numa nova janela). 108 (5): 1943–1961. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1994AJ....108.1943T (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1086/117209 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Chapront, J.; Chapront-Touzé, M.; Francou, G. (2002). "A new determination of lunar orbital parameters, precession constant and tidal acceleration from LLR measurements" (Abre numa nova janela)(PDF). Astronomy and Astrophysics (Abre numa nova janela). 387 (2): 700–709. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2002A&A...387..700C (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1051/0004-6361:20020420 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 55131241 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF)from the original on 12 April 2020. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Why the Moon is getting further away from Earth" (Abre numa nova janela). BBC News. 1 February 2011. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 18 September 2015.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Ray, R. (15 May 2001). "Ocean Tides and the Earth's Rotation" (Abre numa nova janela). IERS Special Bureau for Tides. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 27 March 2010. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Murray, C.D.; Dermott, Stanley F. (1999). Solar System Dynamics. Cambridge University Press (Abre numa nova janela). p. 184. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-521-57295-8 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Dickinson, Terence (Abre numa nova janela) (1993). From the Big Bang to Planet X. Camden East, Ontario: Camden House (Abre numa nova janela). pp. 79–81. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-921820-71-0 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Latham, Gary; Ewing, Maurice; Dorman, James; Lammlein, David; Press, Frank; Toksőz, Naft; Sutton, George; Duennebier, Fred; Nakamura, Yosio (1972). "Moonquakes and lunar tectonism". Earth, Moon, and Planets (Abre numa nova janela). 4 (3–4): 373–382. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1972Moon....4..373L (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1007/BF00562004 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 120692155 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Iain Todd (31 March 2018). "Is the Moon maintaining Earth's magnetism?" (Abre numa nova janela). BBC Sky at Night (Abre numa nova janela) Magazine. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 22 September 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Phillips, Tony (12 March 2007). "Stereo Eclipse" (Abre numa nova janela). Science@NASA. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 10 June 2008. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Espenak, F. (2000). "Solar Eclipses for Beginners" (Abre numa nova janela). MrEclip. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 24 May 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Walker, John (10 July 2004). "Moon near Perigee, Earth near Aphelion" (Abre numa nova janela). Fourmilab (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 8 December 2013. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Thieman, J.; Keating, S. (2 May 2006). "Eclipse 99, Frequently Asked Questions" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 11 February 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Espenak, F. "Saros Cycle" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 24 May 2012. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Guthrie, D.V. (1947). "The Square Degree as a Unit of Celestial Area". Popular Astronomy (Abre numa nova janela). Vol. 55. pp. 200–203. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1947PA.....55..200G (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Total Lunar Occultations" (Abre numa nova janela). Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 23 February 2010. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Lunar maps" (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 1 June 2019. Retrieved 18 September 2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Carved and Drawn Prehistoric Maps of the Cosmos" (Abre numa nova janela). Space Today. 2006. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 5 March 2012. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Aaboe, A.; Britton, J.P.; Henderson, J.A.; Neugebauer, Otto (Abre numa nova janela); Sachs, A.J. (1991). "Saros Cycle Dates and Related Babylonian Astronomical Texts". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (Abre numa nova janela). 81 (6): 1–75. doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.2307/1006543 (Abre numa nova janela). JSTOR (Abre numa nova janela) 1006543 (Abre numa nova janela). One comprises what we have called "Saros Cycle Texts", which give the months of eclipse possibilities arranged in consistent cycles of 223 months (or 18 years).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Sarma, K.V. (Abre numa nova janela) (2008). "Astronomy in India". In Helaine Selin (Abre numa nova janela)(ed.). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Encyclopaedia of the History of Science (2 ed.). Springer (Abre numa nova janela). pp. 317–321. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):2008ehst.book.....S (Abre numa nova janela). ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-1-4020-4559-2 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) c (Abre numa nova janela) d (Abre numa nova janela) Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China, Volume III: Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and Earth (Abre numa nova janela). Taipei: Caves Books. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-521-05801-8 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 22 June 2019. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (February 1999). "Anaxagoras of Clazomenae" (Abre numa nova janela). University of St Andrews (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 12 January 2012. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Robertson, E.F. (November 2000). "Aryabhata the Elder" (Abre numa nova janela). Scotland: School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 11 July 2015. Retrieved 15 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) A.I. Sabra (2008). "Ibn Al-Haytham, Abū ʿAlī Al-Ḥasan Ibn Al-Ḥasan". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons (Abre numa nova janela). pp. 189–210, at 195.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Lewis, C.S. (Abre numa nova janela) (1964). The Discarded Image (Abre numa nova janela). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Abre numa nova janela). p. 108 (Abre numa nova janela). ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-521-47735-2 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) van der Waerden, Bartel Leendert (Abre numa nova janela) (1987). "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (Abre numa nova janela). 500 (1): 1–569. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1987NYASA.500....1A (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37193.x (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 3296915 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 84491987 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press (Abre numa nova janela). pp. 71, 386. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-19-509539-5 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Discovering How Greeks Computed in 100 B.C." (Abre numa nova janela) The New York Times. 31 July 2008. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 9 March 2014.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Van Helden, A. (1995). "The Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). Galileo Project. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 23 June 2004. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Consolmagno, Guy J. (1996). "Astronomy, Science Fiction and Popular Culture: 1277 to 2001 (And beyond)". Leonardo (Abre numa nova janela). 29 (2): 127–132. doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.2307/1576348 (Abre numa nova janela). JSTOR (Abre numa nova janela) 1576348 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 41861791 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Hall, R. Cargill (1977). "Appendix A: Lunar Theory Before 1964" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA History Series. Lunar Impact: A History of Project Ranger. Washington, DC: Scientific and Technical Information Office, NASA. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 10 April 2010. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Zak, Anatoly (2009). "Russia's unmanned missions toward the Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Rocks and Soils from the Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. Archived (Abre numa nova janela)from the original on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) "Soldiers, Spies and the Moon: Secret U.S. and Soviet Plans from the 1950s and 1960s" (Abre numa nova janela). The National Security Archive. National Security Archive. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 December 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Brumfield, Ben (25 July 2014). "U.S. reveals secret plans for '60s moon base" (Abre numa nova janela). CNN. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 27 July 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Teitel, Amy (11 November 2013). "LUNEX: Another way to the Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). Popular Science (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 16 October 2015.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) Logsdon, John (2010). John F. Kennedy and the Race to the Moon. Palgrave Macmillan (Abre numa nova janela). ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-230-11010-6 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Coren, M. (26 July 2004). "'Giant leap' opens world of possibility" (Abre numa nova janela). CNN. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 20 January 2012. Retrieved 16 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Record of Lunar Events, 24 July 1969" (Abre numa nova janela). Apollo 11 30th anniversary. NASA. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 8 April 2010. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Manned Space Chronology: Apollo_11" (Abre numa nova janela). Spaceline.org. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 14 February 2008. Retrieved 6 February 2008.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Apollo Anniversary: Moon Landing "Inspired World"" (Abre numa nova janela). National Geographic. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 9 February 2008. Retrieved 6 February 2008.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Orloff, Richard W. (September 2004) [First published 2000]. "Extravehicular Activity" (Abre numa nova janela). Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference (Abre numa nova janela). NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans. The NASA History Series. Washington, DC: NASA. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-16-050631-4 (Abre numa nova janela). LCCN (Abre numa nova janela) 00061677 (Abre numa nova janela). NASA SP-2000-4029. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 6 June 2013. Retrieved 1 August 2013.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Launius, Roger D. (July 1999). "The Legacy of Project Apollo" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA History Office. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 8 April 2010. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) SP-287 What Made Apollo a Success? A series of eight articles reprinted by permission from the March 1970 issue of Astronautics & Aeronautics, a publication of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Washington, DC: Scientific and Technical Information Office, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (Abre numa nova janela). 1971.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "NASA news release 77-47 page 242" (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF) (Press release). 1 September 1977. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF) from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Appleton, James; Radley, Charles; Deans, John; Harvey, Simon; Burt, Paul; Haxell, Michael; Adams, Roy; Spooner N.; Brieske, Wayne (1977). "NASA Turns A Deaf Ear To The Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). OASI Newsletters Archive. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 10 December 2007. Retrieved 29 August 2007.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Dickey, J.; et al. (1994). "Lunar laser ranging: a continuing legacy of the Apollo program" (Abre numa nova janela). Science (Abre numa nova janela). 265 (5171): 482–490. Bibcode (Abre numa nova janela):1994Sci...265..482D (Abre numa nova janela). doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1126/science.265.5171.482 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 17781305 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 10157934 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Hiten-Hagomoro" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela)on 14 June 2011. Retrieved 29 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Clementine information" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. 1994. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 25 September 2010. Retrieved 29 March2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Lunar Prospector: Neutron Spectrometer" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. 2001. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 29 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "SMART-1 factsheet" (Abre numa nova janela). European Space Agency (Abre numa nova janela). 26 February 2007. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 23 March 2010. Retrieved 29 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "China's first lunar probe ends mission" (Abre numa nova janela). Xinhua (Abre numa nova janela). 1 March 2009. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 4 March 2009. Retrieved 29 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Leonard David (17 March 2015). "China Outlines New Rockets, Space Station and Moon Plans" (Abre numa nova janela). Space.com (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 1 July 2016. Retrieved 29 June 2016.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "KAGUYA Mission Profile" (Abre numa nova janela). JAXA (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 28 March 2010. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "KAGUYA (SELENE) World's First Image Taking of the Moon by HDTV" (Abre numa nova janela). Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (Abre numa nova janela)(JAXA) and Japan Broadcasting Corporation (Abre numa nova janela) (NHK). 7 November 2007. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 16 March 2010. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Mission Sequence" (Abre numa nova janela). Indian Space Research Organisation (Abre numa nova janela). 17 November 2008. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 6 July 2010. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Indian Space Research Organisation: Future Program" (Abre numa nova janela). Indian Space Research Organisation (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 25 November 2010. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "India and Russia Sign an Agreement on Chandrayaan-2" (Abre numa nova janela). Indian Space Research Organisation (Abre numa nova janela). 14 November 2007. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 17 December 2007. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Lunar CRater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS): Strategy & Astronomer Observation Campaign" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. October 2009. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 1 January 2012. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Giant moon crater revealed in spectacular up-close photos" (Abre numa nova janela). NBC News (Abre numa nova janela). Space.com. 6 January 2012. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 18 March 2020. Retrieved 22 November 2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Chang, Alicia (26 December 2011). "Twin probes to circle moon to study gravity field" (Abre numa nova janela). Phys.org (Abre numa nova janela). Associated Press (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 22 July 2018. Retrieved 22 July 2018.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Covault, C. (4 June 2006). "Russia Plans Ambitious Robotic Lunar Mission" (Abre numa nova janela). Aviation Week (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 12 June 2006. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "About the Google Lunar X Prize" (Abre numa nova janela). X-Prize Foundation (Abre numa nova janela). 2010. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 28 February 2010. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Wall, Mike (14 January 2011). "Mining the Moon's Water: Q&A with Shackleton Energy's Bill Stone" (Abre numa nova janela). Space News (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "President Bush Offers New Vision For NASA" (Abre numa nova janela) (Press release). NASA. 14 December 2004. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 10 May 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Constellation" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 12 April 2010. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "NASA Unveils Global Exploration Strategy and Lunar Architecture" (Abre numa nova janela) (Press release). NASA. 4 December 2006. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 23 August 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) NASAtelevision (15 April 2010). "President Obama Pledges Total Commitment to NASA" (Abre numa nova janela). YouTube (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 28 April 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "India's Space Agency Proposes Manned Spaceflight Program" (Abre numa nova janela). Space.com (Abre numa nova janela). 10 November 2006. Archived (Abre numa nova janela)from the original on 11 April 2012. Retrieved 23 October2008.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "SpaceX to help Vodafone and Nokia install first 4G signal on the Moon | The Week UK" (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 28 February 2018.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "NASA plans to send first woman on Moon by 2024" (Abre numa nova janela). The Asian Age. 15 May 2019. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 14 April 2020. Retrieved 15 May 2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Chang, Kenneth (24 January 2017). "For 5 Contest Finalists, a $20 Million Dash to the Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). The New York Times. ISSN (Abre numa nova janela) 0362-4331 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 15 July 2017. Retrieved 13 July 2017.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Mike Wall (16 August 2017), "Deadline for Google Lunar X Prize Moon Race Extended Through March 2018" (Abre numa nova janela), space.com, archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 September 2017, retrieved 25 September 2017
^ (Abre numa nova janela) McCarthy, Ciara (3 August 2016). "US startup Moon Express approved to make 2017 lunar mission" (Abre numa nova janela). The Guardian. ISSN (Abre numa nova janela) 0261-3077 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 13 July 2017.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "An Important Update From Google Lunar XPRIZE" (Abre numa nova janela). Google Lunar XPRIZE. 23 January 2018. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 24 January 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) "Moon Express Approved for Private Lunar Landing in 2017, a Space First" (Abre numa nova janela). Space.com. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 12 July 2017. Retrieved 13 July 2017.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Chang, Kenneth (29 November 2018). "NASA's Return to the Moon to Start With Private Companies' Spacecraft" (Abre numa nova janela). The New York Times (Abre numa nova janela). The New York Times Company (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 1 December 2018. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Andrew Jones (23 September 2020). "China's Chang'e 3 lunar lander still going strong after 7 years on the moon" (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Jackson, Shanessa (11 September 2018). "Competition Seeks University Concepts for Gateway and Deep Space Exploration Capabilities" (Abre numa nova janela). nasa.gov. NASA. Archived (Abre numa nova janela)from the original on 17 June 2019. Retrieved 19 September2018. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "NASA - Ultraviolet Waves" (Abre numa nova janela). Science.hq.nasa.gov. 27 September 2013. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 17 October 2013. Retrieved 3 October 2013.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Takahashi, Yuki (September 1999). "Mission Design for Setting up an Optical Telescope on the Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). California Institute of Technology (Abre numa nova janela). Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 6 November 2015. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Chandler, David (15 February 2008). "MIT to lead development of new telescopes on moon" (Abre numa nova janela). MIT News. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 4 March 2009. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Naeye, Robert (6 April 2008). "NASA Scientists Pioneer Method for Making Giant Lunar Telescopes" (Abre numa nova janela). Goddard Space Flight Center (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 22 December 2010. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Bell, Trudy (9 October 2008). "Liquid Mirror Telescopes on the Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). Science News. NASA. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 23 March 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph" (Abre numa nova janela). Lpi.usra.edu. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 3 October 2013.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Mission Report: Apollo 17 – The Most Productive Lunar Expedition" (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF). NASA. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) Leonard David (21 October 2019). "Moon Dust Could Be a Problem for Future Lunar Explorers" (Abre numa nova janela). Retrieved 26 November 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Zheng, William (15 January 2019). "Chinese lunar lander's cotton seeds spring to life on far side of the moon" (Abre numa nova janela). South China Morning Post. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) "Can any State claim a part of outer space as its own?" (Abre numa nova janela). United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 21 April 2010. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "How many States have signed and ratified the five international treaties governing outer space?" (Abre numa nova janela). United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (Abre numa nova janela). 1 January 2006. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 21 April 2010. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Do the five international treaties regulate military activities in outer space?" (Abre numa nova janela). United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 21 April 2010. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies" (Abre numa nova janela). United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 9 August 2010. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "The treaties control space-related activities of States. What about non-governmental entities active in outer space, like companies and even individuals?" (Abre numa nova janela). United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 21 April 2010. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Statement by the Board of Directors of the IISL On Claims to Property Rights Regarding The Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (2004)" (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF). International Institute of Space Law (Abre numa nova janela). 2004. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF) on 22 December 2009. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Further Statement by the Board of Directors of the IISL On Claims to Lunar Property Rights (2009)" (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF). International Institute of Space Law (Abre numa nova janela). 22 March 2009. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) (PDF) on 22 December 2009. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Administration Statement on Executive Order on Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources" (Abre numa nova janela). Retrieved 17 June 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Executive Order on Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources" (Abre numa nova janela). whitehouse.gov (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 20 January 2021. Retrieved 17 June 2020 – via National Archives (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Tepper, Eytan; Whitehead, Christopher (1 December 2018). "Moon, Inc.: The New Zealand Model of Granting Legal Personality to Natural Resources Applied to Space" (Abre numa nova janela). New Space. 6 (4): 288–298. doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1089/space.2018.0025 (Abre numa nova janela). ISSN (Abre numa nova janela) 2168-0256 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) c (Abre numa nova janela) d (Abre numa nova janela) Dexter, Miriam Robbins (1984). "Proto-Indo-European Sun Maidens and Gods of the Moon". Mankind Quarterly. 25 (1 & 2): 137–144.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) c (Abre numa nova janela) d (Abre numa nova janela) e (Abre numa nova janela) Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea (1998), Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia (Abre numa nova janela), Daily Life, Greenwood, p. 203 (Abre numa nova janela), ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-313-29497-6 (Abre numa nova janela), archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 16 June 2020, retrieved 11 June 2019
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) c (Abre numa nova janela) d (Abre numa nova janela) e (Abre numa nova janela) Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992). Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary (Abre numa nova janela). The British Museum Press. p. 135. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-7141-1705-8 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 28 October 2017.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Zschietzschmann, W. (2006). Hellas and Rome: The Classical World in Pictures. Whitefish, Montana: Kessinger Publishing. p. 23. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-1-4286-5544-7 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Cohen, Beth (2006). "Outline as a Special Technique in Black- and Red-figure Vase-painting". The Colors of Clay: Special Techniques in Athenian Vases (Abre numa nova janela). Los Angeles: Getty Publications. pp. 178–179. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-89236-942-3 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Muhammad." Encyclopædia Britannica (Abre numa nova janela). 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online, p.13
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Ahead Of Chandrayaan 2 Landing, Poet-Diplomat Writes "Moon Anthem" (Abre numa nova janela)Archived (Abre numa nova janela) 20 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine (Abre numa nova janela) NDTV, 6 Sept.2019
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Marshack, Alexander (1991), The Roots of Civilization, Colonial Hill, Mount Kisco, NY.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Brooks, A.S. and Smith, C.C. (1987): "Ishango revisited: new age determinations and cultural interpretations", The African Archaeological Review, 5 : 65–78.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Duncan, David Ewing (1998). The Calendar (Abre numa nova janela). Fourth Estate Ltd. pp. 10–11 (Abre numa nova janela). ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-1-85702-721-1 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) For etymology, see Barnhart, Robert K. (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology. Harper Collins (Abre numa nova janela). p. 487. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-06-270084-1 (Abre numa nova janela).. For the lunar calendar of the Germanic peoples, see Birley, A. R. (Trans.) (1999). Agricola and Germany (Abre numa nova janela). Oxford World's Classics. US: Oxford University Press (Abre numa nova janela). p. 108 (Abre numa nova janela). ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-19-283300-6 (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2019.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Mallory, J.P.; Adams, D.Q. (2006). The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford Linguistics. Oxford University Press (Abre numa nova janela). pp. 98, 128, 317. ISBN (Abre numa nova janela) 978-0-19-928791-8 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Harper, Douglas. "measure" (Abre numa nova janela). Online Etymology Dictionary (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Harper, Douglas. "menstrual" (Abre numa nova janela). Online Etymology Dictionary (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Smith, William George (1849). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology: Oarses-Zygia (Abre numa nova janela). 3. J. Walton. p. 768. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 29 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Estienne, Henri (1846). Thesaurus graecae linguae (Abre numa nova janela). 5. Didot. p. 1001. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 29 March 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) mensis (Abre numa nova janela). Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary (Abre numa nova janela) on Perseus Project (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) μείς (Abre numa nova janela) in Liddell (Abre numa nova janela) and Scott (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) "Islamic Calendars based on the Calculated First Visibility of the Lunar Crescent" (Abre numa nova janela). University of Utrecht (Abre numa nova janela). Archived (Abre numa nova janela)from the original on 11 January 2014. Retrieved 11 January2014.
^ Jump up to: a (Abre numa nova janela) b (Abre numa nova janela) Lilienfeld, Scott O.; Arkowitz, Hal (2009). "Lunacy and the Full Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). Scientific American. Archived (Abre numa nova janela) from the original on 16 October 2009. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Rotton, James; Kelly, I.W. (1985). "Much ado about the full moon: A meta-analysis of lunar-lunacy research". Psychological Bulletin (Abre numa nova janela). 97 (2): 286–306. doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1037/0033-2909.97.2.286 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 3885282 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Martens, R.; Kelly, I.W.; Saklofske, D.H. (1988). "Lunar Phase and Birthrate: A 50-year Critical Review". Psychological Reports (Abre numa nova janela). 63 (3): 923–934. doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.2466/pr0.1988.63.3.923 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 3070616 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 34184527 (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Kelly, Ivan; Rotton, James; Culver, Roger (1986), "The Moon Was Full and Nothing Happened: A Review of Studies on the Moon and Human Behavior", Skeptical Inquirer (Abre numa nova janela), 10 (2): 129–143. Reprinted in The Hundredth Monkey - and other paradigms of the paranormal, edited by Kendrick Frazier, Prometheus Books. Revised and updated in The Outer Edge: Classic Investigations of the Paranormal, edited by Joe Nickell (Abre numa nova janela), Barry Karr (Abre numa nova janela), and Tom Genoni, 1996, CSICOP (Abre numa nova janela).
^ (Abre numa nova janela) Foster, Russell G.; Roenneberg, Till (2008). "Human Responses to the Geophysical Daily, Annual and Lunar Cycles". Current Biology (Abre numa nova janela). 18 (17): R784–R794. doi (Abre numa nova janela):10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.003 (Abre numa nova janela). PMID (Abre numa nova janela) 18786384 (Abre numa nova janela). S2CID (Abre numa nova janela) 15429616 (Abre numa nova janela).

External links

Moonat Wikipedia's sister projects (Abre numa nova janela)

Definitions (Abre numa nova janela) from Wiktionary
Media (Abre numa nova janela) from Wikimedia Commons
News (Abre numa nova janela) from Wikinews
Quotations (Abre numa nova janela) from Wikiquote
Texts (Abre numa nova janela) from Wikisource
Textbooks (Abre numa nova janela) from Wikibooks
Travel guide (Abre numa nova janela) from Wikivoyage
Resources (Abre numa nova janela) from Wikiversity
NASA images and videos about the Moon (Abre numa nova janela)
Albums of images and high-resolution overflight videos by Seán Doran, based on LROC (Abre numa nova janela) data, on Flickr (Abre numa nova janela) and YouTube (Abre numa nova janela)
Video (04:56) – The Moon in 4K (NASA, April 2018) (Abre numa nova janela) on YouTube (Abre numa nova janela)
Video (04:47) – The Moon in 3D (NASA, July 2018) (Abre numa nova janela) on YouTube (Abre numa nova janela)

Cartographic resources

Unified Geologic Map of the Moon (Abre numa nova janela) - United States Geological Survey (Abre numa nova janela)
Moon Trek – An integrated map browser of datasets and maps for the Moon (Abre numa nova janela)
The Moon on Google Maps (Abre numa nova janela), a 3-D rendition of the Moon akin to Google Earth
"Consolidated Lunar Atlas" (Abre numa nova janela). Lunar and Planetary Institute (Abre numa nova janela). Retrieved 26 February 2012.
Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature (USGS) (Abre numa nova janela) List of feature names.
"Clementine Lunar Image Browser" (Abre numa nova janela). U.S. Navy (Abre numa nova janela). 15 October 2003. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
3D zoomable globes:"Google Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
"Moon" (Abre numa nova janela). World Wind Central. NASA. 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
Aeschliman, R. "Lunar Maps" (Abre numa nova janela). Planetary Cartography and Graphics. Retrieved 12 April 2007. Maps and panoramas at Apollo landing sites
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) (Abre numa nova janela) Kaguya (Selene) (Abre numa nova janela) images
Lunar Earthside chart (4497 x 3150px) (Abre numa nova janela)
Large image of the Moon's north pole area (Abre numa nova janela)
Large image of Moon's south pole area (1000x1000px) (Abre numa nova janela)

Observation tools

"NASA's SKYCAL – Sky Events Calendar" (Abre numa nova janela). NASA. Archived from the original (Abre numa nova janela) on 20 August 2007. Retrieved 27 August 2007.
"Find moonrise, moonset and moonphase for a location" (Abre numa nova janela). 2008. Retrieved 18 February 2008.
"HMNAO's Moon Watch" (Abre numa nova janela). 2005. Retrieved 24 May 2009. See when the next new crescent moon is visible for any location.

General

Lunar shelter (Abre numa nova janela) (building a lunar base with 3D printing (Abre numa nova janela))

show

The Moon

show

Earth (Abre numa nova janela)

show

Natural satellites (Abre numa nova janela) of the Solar System (Abre numa nova janela)

show

Solar System (Abre numa nova janela)

Authority control (Abre numa nova janela)

Categories (Abre numa nova janela):

Search

Contribute

Tools

Print/export

In other projects

Languages

224 more

Edit links (Abre numa nova janela)

This page was last edited on 28 March 2021, at 22:47 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License (Abre numa nova janela); additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use (Abre numa nova janela) and Privacy Policy (Abre numa nova janela). Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. (Abre numa nova janela), a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy (Abre numa nova janela)
About Wikipedia (Abre numa nova janela)
Disclaimers (Abre numa nova janela)
Contact Wikipedia (Abre numa nova janela)
Mobile view (Abre numa nova janela)
Developers (Abre numa nova janela)
Statistics (Abre numa nova janela)
Cookie statement (Abre numa nova janela)

Data 30/03/2021

0 cincos

00 comentários

Enviar como e-mail

Conteúdo do relatório

0 comentários

Gostaria de ser o primeiro a escrever um comentário?

Torne-se membro de Glitter Moon <script>alert('Hello')</script> e comece a conversa.

Torne-se membro

💌 Glitter Moon <script>alert('Hello')</script> Newsletter

Hello, please subscribe to receive my new posts as a newsletter sent directly to your inbox – for free! your inbox – for free!Hello, please subscribe to receive my new po

Privacidade (Abre numa nova janela)

Ler mais em Glitter Moon <script>alert('Hello')</script>

sadfsbvk. knfasf

15/04/2021

,sjkbfiuagf

29/03/2021

Moon

Contents

Name and etymology

Formation

Physical characteristics

Internal structure

Surface geology

Volcanic features

Impact craters

Lunar swirls

Presence of water

Gravitational field

Magnetic field

Atmosphere

Dust

Past thicker atmosphere

Seasons

Rotation

Earth–Moon system

Lunar distance

Orbit

Relative size

Appearance from Earth

Tidal effects

Eclipses

Observation and exploration

Before spaceflight

1959–1970s

Soviet missions

United States missions

1970s – present

Future

Planned commercial missions

Human presence

Human impact

Infrastructure

Astronomy from the Moon

Living on the Moon

Legal status

In culture

Mythology

Calendar

Lunar effect

Notes

References

Citations

Further reading

External links

Cartographic resources

Observation tools

General

Navigation menu

Search

Contribute

Tools

Print/export

In other projects

Languages

0 comentários

💌 Glitter Moon <script>alert('Hello')</script> Newsletter

Ler mais em Glitter Moon <script>alert('Hello')</script>

sadfsbvk. knfasf

,sjkbfiuagf